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b. A functional-notional syllabus, in which the content of language is a collection of functions that are performed when language is used or of the notions that
language is used to express. Some examples of functions are performing, agreeing, refusing, and inviting. Some examples of notions are age, size, color,
and comparison. c. A situational syllabus, in which the content of language is a collection of real
or imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used. d. A skill-based syllabus, in which the content of language is a collection of
specific abilities that may play a part in using language. Primary purpose of this syllabus is to learn specific-language skills.
e. A task-based syllabus, in which the content of language is a series of complex and purposeful tasks that students want or need to perform with language
learnt. f. A content-based syllabus, in which the primary purpose of instruction is to
teach some contents or information using language that students will learn.
3. Materials Development
According to Hutchinson and Waters 1987, there are three possible ways of turning your course design into actual teaching materials p. 96. The following
sentences are the three possible ways in developing materials Hutchinson Waters, 1987, p. 96.
a. Select from existing materials: materials evaluation b. Write your own materials: materials development
c. Modify existing materials: materials adaptation combination of a b
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Regardless of the differences, materials researcher can learn a lot in terms of ideas and techniques from evaluating existing materials. However, writing materials
makes the designer more aware of what to look for in materials written by other people.
Furthermore, materials development refers to anything which is done by researchers, teachers or learners to provide sources of language input and to
exploit those sources in ways which maximize the likelihood of intake: in other words, the supplying of information about anor experience of the language in
ways designed to promote language learning Tomlinson, 1998, p. 2. Materials are developed in order to present models of correct language used in target
situation Hutchinson Waters, 1987, p. 106. Therefore, there are some indicators of a good material. Hutchinson and Water 1987 stated that good
materials will contain interesting texts, enjoyable activities which engage the learners’ thinking capacities, opportunities for learners to use their existing
knowledge and skills, and the last, content which both learner and teacher can cope with p. 107. Tomlinson 1998 also adds that materials should provide the
learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative purposes p. 14.
Ideally teaching materials should provide opportunities for such interaction in a variety of discourse modes ranging from planned to unplanned
Ellis, 1990, p. 191. The interaction itself can be achieved through the learning activities, such as post-reading activities, various and creative learning activities,
and opinion gap activities.
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Another finding, as stated by Corbel 1985, materials are designed through four-stage procedure p. 74. Those four-stage procedures are:
1 Identify the learners’ areas of interest in broad thematic terms.
2 Identify series of communication situations related to that theme and link
them to form an action sequence. 3
Select or devise materials appropriate to the situations in the action sequence. 4
Choose language points to focus on from the materials. That four-stage procedure enhanced that a good material should provide a
stimulus to learning and embodies a view of the nature of language and learning, as stated by Hutchinson and Waters 1987, p. 107.
In fact, material development or design must fit into the students so that it is designed based on the learners’ need. Besides, materials help to organize the
teaching-learning process by providing a clear, systematic, and coherent unit structure. Then, Hutchinson and Water 1987 proposes a model for material
design p. 108. The aim of this particular model is to provide a coherent framework for the integration of the various aspects of learning, while at the same
time allowing enough room for creativity and variety to flourish. The model consists of four elements: input, content focus, language focus, and task.
4. Model of Material Design
