ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN).

ASEAN was founded on 8 August 1967 and comprised at that time In- donesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. The ASEAN secretariat is in Jakarta, and H. R. Dharsono was the first sec- retary-general. Its members saw their principal security threats as inter- nal and aimed to avert these by promoting economic development through regional cooperation. Brunei joined ASEAN in 1984, soon after achieving independence from Britain; Vietnam became the seventh member in 1995; Laos and Burma (Myanmar) were admitted to full membership in 1997; and Cambodia became its 10th member in 1999. ASEAN formally aimed to create a Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neu- trality (ZOPFAN) in Southeast Asia, but its members commonly dis- agreed on the extent to which great powers should be a part of this goal. Little economic integration has been achieved, as became evident during the 1997–1998 financial crisis, but on occasions ASEAN success- fully operated as a unit in international affairs, especially in the achieve- ment of a Cambodia settlement. See also FOREIGN POLICY. [0001, 1101, 1103]

AUSTRALIA, HISTORICAL LINKS WITH • 31

ASSOCIATION PRINCIPLE. Doctrine, linked with the Ethical Policy

and especially Snouck Hurgronje, which argued that colonial rule should aim to assimilate the Indonesian elite to modern Western secular culture by means of education and the opening of government positions to qualified Indonesians. It was opposed both by conservatives who saw in it an end to colonial rule and by the proponents of adat, who believed it would rob Indonesians of their own culture. See also DJAJADIN- INGRAT, ACHMAD; MUIS, ABDUL.

ASTRA. Founded in 1957 by William Soeryadjaya (Tjia Kian Liong), As- tra became Indonesia’s largest automobile producer. Unlike other manufacturers, it retained considerable autonomy from the Suharto family and was the main partner of Toyota in the car-manufacturing subsidiary, Toyota Astra Motor. As the most visible symbol of Japanese influence in Indonesia, its showroom was burned down by demonstrators in the Malari riots (1974). Astra International was also active in banking, in- surance, mining, food crops, and plywood manufacturing. In 1992 the company collapsed because of mismanagement at Bank Summa and was taken over by a group of ethnic Chinese businessmen, led by Prajogo Pangestu and Liem Sioe Liong. Astra borrowed extensively in the mid- 1990s, and after defaulting on its debt it signed a debt restructuring plan in 1999, which involved selling assets to help the company pay off its losses. It was forced to ask for debt relief again in 2002 as, with little faith in Indonesia’s economic recovery, few foreign investors were willing to buy Indonesian assets. In December 2002, Astra’s major creditors agreed to a new restructuring, forgiving part of its debt and stretching out the repayment schedule to 2009. Toyota in a joint venture with Astra announced in March 2003 that it planned to make an investment of $180 million in expanding the production of utility vehicles, an investment that would give it a 95-percent stake in the joint venture. [0313, 0402, 0745, 0748]

AUSTRALIA, HISTORICAL LINKS WITH. Up to about 3000 B.C., much of Australia and the Indonesian archipelago seem to have formed

a single cultural region inhabited by Austro-Melanesian (Australoid) people who reached the area 50,000–100,000 years ago, perhaps earlier. This continuity was broken by the arrival of Austronesians in the archipelago (see MIGRATIONS); although the Austronesians certainly reached the Australian coast from time to time, there is no trace of per- manent settlement.

32 • AUSTRALIA, RELATIONS WITH In the 17th century, Dutch authorities in Batavia sent expeditions to

the south to look for trading opportunities, but these explorers reported nothing of commercial advantage there. The Dutch technique of sailing to Indonesia by heading directly east from the Cape of Good Hope led a number of vessels to sight and run against the western Australian coast. In the 18th century the exhaustion of trepang (beche de mer) fields in the archipelago brought Indonesian fishing fleets of up to 2,000 vessels, mainly from Makassar, to the northern coast of Australia, where some cultural influences on Aborigines are still visible.

During the first years of British settlement in eastern Australia in the late 18th century, the Dutch settlements in Indonesia were the nearest point of European civilization; and during the 19th century, Australian produce found something of a market there. There were also important scientific connections between the two colonies in the field of tropical agriculture. A telegraph link between Banyuwangi on Java and Darwin, Australia, was laid in 1871. Australian tourism to Indonesia began in the early 20th century, and Australian commercial interests became involved in eastern Indonesia, especially in the pearl industry of the Aru Islands.

During the 19th century, the Dutch colonial authorities became increasingly worried by the possibility of Australian imperialist expansion in the eastern archipelago, and well-founded Dutch suspicion of Aus- tralia’s intentions hampered cooperation in the defense of the Indies against Japan, although the two countries were joined with Britain and America in the so-called ABDA (American-British-Dutch-Australian) command. During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, the colonial rulers formed a government-in-exile in Australia and attempted to stave off Australian ambitions to establish some form of hegemony in Papua (Irian) and Timor. [1116]

AUSTRALIA, RELATIONS WITH. At the close of World War II, Aus- tralian forces accepted the Japanese surrender and restored Dutch rule in eastern Indonesia, despite Australian ambitions in the region. The In- donesian struggle, however, quickly attracted the sympathy of the Left in Australia, where dockworkers organized strikes against Dutch ship- ping, the first tangible sign of international support for the Republic. Australian policy makers, historically unsympathetic to the Dutch and keen to cultivate good relations with prospective neighbors, increasingly sided with Indonesia in international forums, and Australia was Indonesia’s nominee on the United Nations Good Offices Committee in 1947–1948.

AUSTRALIA, RELATIONS WITH • 33 Relations with Indonesia deteriorated in the late 1950s over Indone-

sia’s continued claim to West Irian (Papua), which was seen in Australia as expansionist, and in the early 1960s Australian troops fought Indone- sians in northern Borneo during Confrontation. Relations were good during the first decade of the New Order as Australia increasingly sought friends in Asia while Indonesia looked for Western aid, but the In- donesian invasion of East Timor in 1975, including the killing of five journalists from Australia and later including what Indonesia has seen as persistently hostile press reporting soured relations, which reached a nadir in 1986 after a report in the Sydney Morning Herald (10 April) on the Suharto family’s wealth.

From then on, Indonesia’s policy in East Timor was a continuing thorn in its relationship with Australia, reaching a climax in 1999. In April of that year, Australia pressed for introduction of an international peacekeeping force to oversee the planned plebiscite on independence, it opened a consulate in Dili on 8 June, and it strongly protested Indonesian support of prointegration militias in their continuing violent campaigns. Australia was the first country to pledge troops toward an international peacekeeping force when widespread violence followed the 31 August vote, and it headed the force that was dispatched to East Timor from Dar- win on 20 September. Australian leaders condemned the Indonesian militias for their continuing violence against the Timorese, with some Aus- tralians boycotting Indonesian goods and services, while Indonesians responded with anti-Australian demonstrations. Relations remained cool, and in December 2000 Indonesia protested Australia’s role in the seces- sion of East Timor while Australia was concerned about the potential refugee problem. In 2001 the Indonesian foreign minister visited Aus- tralia, and the two countries agreed on joint measures to combat terrorism and on introducing measures on a regional basis to reduce illegal migration to Australia from Afghanistan and south Asia, via Indonesia.

In the aftermath of the Bali bombings of October 2002 in which 89 Australian tourists lost their lives, relations between the two countries underwent a further change when they signed an agreement allowing the Australian Federal Police (AFP) to participate in the investigation. But fears were raised in Indonesia when Australian Prime Minister John Howard declared in December that his government was willing to launch preemptive attacks on terrorists in neighboring countries. In 2002 total trade between Australia and Indonesia reached a record high of A$7.4 billion, with Indonesia’s exports to Australia at A$4.3 billion. [0479, 1107, 1112, 1114, 1116, 1133]

34 • AUSTRONESIANS AUSTRONESIANS. See LANGUAGE; MIGRATION; RICE; TARO. AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY. The domestic automobile industry grew up

in the 1970s. The two major car manufacturers were Astra, which took up more than half the market, and the Salim Group. In 1996 Suharto announced that a company, PT Timor Putra Nasional, owned by his son, Hutomo (Tommy) Mandala Putra, would be allowed to develop a “national car,” to be named the Timor, in conjunction with Kia Motors of South Korea. In fact, the company imported duty-free Timors made wholly in South Korea, an arrangement denounced both by Indonesian competitors and the World Bank. In July 1997, the Suharto government pressured Indonesia’s biggest state and private banks to finance a Timor factory east of Jakarta, but in January of the following year, an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) led Suharto to end tax breaks for the national car. See also INDUSTRIALIZATION; SUHARTO FAMILY. [0313, 0402]

AZAS TUNGGAL (“sole principle”). See PANCASILA.

AZIZ, ANDI ABDUL. Captain in the Koninklijk Nederlandsch Indisch

Leger (KNIL) who seized control of Makassar in a limited coup on 5 April 1950, partly to prevent the landing of Republican troops who, he feared, might begin to dismantle the Negara Indonesia Timur (NIT), partly out of frustration at the slow progress made in integrating former KNIL troops into the Republik Indonesia Serikat (RIS) armed forces. The Aziz affair ended when the NIT government failed to back him, and

he was arrested in Jakarta on 18 April. The resemblance of the affair to the abortive coup by R. P. P. Westerling in Bandung was an important element in discrediting the NIT. [0699, 0784]

–B–

BABAD . Javanese verse chronicles commonly written to describe and glo- rify the rise or rule of a particular king, though some deal exclusively with mythical tales. The term babad also means “to clear forest,” sug- gesting that these chronicles were associated with the founding of king- doms; they appear to be an indigenous development, though all known babad were written after the conversion of Java to Islam. [0497, 0502, 0505]

BADAN KOORDINASI BANTUAN PEMANTAPAN STABILITAS NASIONAL • 35 BABAD TANAH JAWI . Babad celebrating the power of 17th-century

Mataram, probably composed in the court of Sultan Agung, though all known manuscripts date from the 18th and 19th centuries.

BACAN. Island in northern Maluku. Its people probably came originally from Halmahera but now include a sizeable Christian community of part-Portuguese descent. The Portuguese founded a fort there in 1558, which fell in 1609 to the Dutch, who placed Bacan under the sovereignty of Ternate. [0026, 0032]

ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN).