KAHAR MUZAKKAR (also spelled Qahhar Mudzakkar) (1921–1965).

Born in Luwu, he was educated in Muhammadiyah schools in Su- lawesi and Surakarta (Solo). He returned to Luwu in 1941 to teach in a Muhammadiyah school until banished by the local council in 1943, when

he went into business in Makassar, then in Surakarta. He led a force of South Sulawesi emigrés in Java during the national Revolution and returned to South Sulawesi in April 1950. Though strongly opposed to the Negara Indonesia Timur (NIT), he resented its abrupt dismantling by central government forces, which, he said, acted like an army of occupation. In August 1951 he launched a rebellion against the central government and affiliated his movement broadly with S. M. Kartosuwiryo and his Darul Islam (DI) in August 1952. In 1953 he proclaimed Sulawesi to be part of the Negara Republik Indonesia Islam (NRII, Indonesian Is- lamic Republic) and attempted to establish Islamic rule in the region, limiting private property, establishing schools and hospitals, and banning titles, lipstick, and jewelry. Kahar controlled much of the hinterland of Makassar until the early 1960s. He was finally shot by government forces in 1965. His defense minister, Sanusi Daris, reappeared in the mid-1980s as a link between South Sulawesi radicals and Abu Bakar Ba’asyir’s group in Java. See ISLAM IN INDONESIA. [0695, 0699, 1031]

212 • KAHARINGAN KAHARINGAN. See DAYAKS. KAKAWIN. Classic Javanese poetic form, mostly long and divided into

four-line verses with a fixed number of letter groups per line. KALIMANTAN. Used to denote both the island of Borneo and, as here, its

southern, Indonesian portion, approximately 73 percent of its area, with a population of about 11.3 million in 2000. Most Indonesians believe the name signifies Kali Intan, “River of Diamonds,” (kali intan, i.e., the Bar- ito in southeast Kalimantan), though it probably derives from “land of raw sago” (lamanta). Kalimantan has no active volcanoes, and its topog- raphy is dominated by a low central mountain spine running roughly northeast-southwest from which a number of rivers—the Kapuas, Sam- bas, Barito, and Mahakam—flow, often through swampy coastal plains, to the sea. Most of the island is below 200 meters in elevation. The dozens of indigenous ethnic groups, the most numerous of them generally called Iban or Dayaks, were pushed from the coastal regions in early times by Malay peoples, who established a series of small states such as Kutai at or near the mouths of rivers. These states, most notably Pontianak and Banjarmasin, provided reprovisioning facilities for interregional trade, acted as outlets for produce from the interior (rattan, dragon’s blood, birds’ nests, gold, and resins), and generally engaged in piracy, as did states on the Strait of Melaka (see SRIVIJAYA). Usually, however, they remained subordinate to one or the other dominant regional power (Sriv- ijaya, Kediri, Majapahit, Melaka, Banten). The coastal states converted to Islam around the 16th century. During the 18th century there was ex- tensive settlement by Bugis from southern Sulawesi in coastal regions.

Through Banten, the Dutch inherited a nominal interest in western Kalimantan and put trading posts at Sambas and Sukadana in the early 17th century. These, however, were soon evacuated. In the late 18th and early 19th century the Dutch established greater control in Pontianak, Sambas, and Mempawah to forestall possible British annexation and to restrict what they saw as piracy. From 1790 to 1820 large numbers of Chinese came to gold fields between the Kapuas and Sambas Rivers, where some later settled as farmers (see also KONGSI WARS). Dutch control in Banjarmasin was not established until the 19th century. From 1938 the Dutch portion of the island was ruled as a gouvernement (see DECENTRALIZATION). Oil, discovered on the east coast in the late 19th century, transformed that region economically, making it a major target of the Japanese invasion in 1942. The Dutch divided Kalimantan

KARTINI, RADEN AJENG • 213 into two residencies: (1) South and East Borneo and (2) West Borneo

(Westerafdeeling). During the national Revolution, they briefly toyed with the idea of creating a federal state of Borneo on the island, but even- tually declared a number of smaller states (see FEDERALISM). The island became a single province at the time of independence, but in 1957 it was divided again, this time into three provinces: South, East, and Cen- tral Kalimantan.

During Indonesia’s Confrontation with Malaysia, Indonesian troops fought British Commonwealth forces along the border with Sarawak. Af- ter 1965 the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) briefly organized guerrilla resistance in West Kalimantan. Many local Chinese communities, sus- pected of involvement with the rebels, were expelled by the government. After 1967 East Kalimantan became a major logging region (see FORESTRY) and the island has been an important transmigration settlement site, with immigrants arriving from Java and Madura during the 1970s and 1980s, while large numbers of Bugis pepper farmers came to East Kalimantan from the 1960s on. Widespread deforestation and the oil palm plantations that replaced much of the native forests were among the reasons contributing to the enormous fires that destroyed about 3.2 million hectares (ha) of forest areas of East Kalimantan in 1982–1983 and swept through much of the island in 1997. Following the 1997 fires, Dayak tribesmen in West Kalimantan began attacking Madurese settlements, re- asserting their claim to their ancestral lands. About 450 Madurese were killed, and thousands fled. Attacks against the Madurese by both Malays and Dayaks followed the fall of Suharto, with most of the Madurese mi- grants fleeing Kalimantan and seeking asylum in Sulawesi and Madura. Under the decentralization law of 2001, Kalimantan was divided into four provinces: West, South, Central, and East Kalimantan. [0118, 0264, 0329, 0788, 0795, 0805, 0811, 0812, 1048, 1058, 1158, 1378]

“KAN-T’O-LI.” Chinese transcription of the name of an otherwise un- known kingdom on the southeastern coast of Sumatra. It sent tribute to China from 441 and traded with China, India, and other parts of the ar- chipelago. It was superseded by Srivijaya in the late seventh century. See also “HO-LO-TAN.” [0542, 0543]

KARTASURA. See MATARAM. KARTINI, RADEN AJENG (1879–1904). Javanese feminist writer and

activist, she was the daughter of a progressive bupati. She received some

214 • KARTOSUWIRYO, SEKARMAJI MARIJAN Western education but at puberty was secluded in preparation for mar-

riage. Nevertheless she opened a school in her father’s residence at Japara in 1903 and, after marrying in November of that year, maintained the school in her husband’s residence at Rembang. She died in childbirth in 1904. She is known largely for her memorandum to the colonial government, “Educate the Javanese!” (1903), and her letters, published posthumously as Door duisternis tot licht: gedachten over en voor het Javaanse volk (From Darkness to Light, Thoughts about and on Behalf of the Javanese People, 1911), edited by J. H. Abendanon and with a foreword by Louis Couperus, and in English translation as Letters of a Javanese Princess (1964). Her correspondence is important for its asser- tion of women’s right to education and freedom from polygamy and child marriage. Royalties from the publication of her letters in the Netherlands helped to found a number of “Kartini schools” giving education to girls. [0876, 0885, 1277, 1287]

KARTOSUWIRYO, SEKARMAJI MARIJAN (1905–1962). Foster son of Haji Umar Said Tjokroaminoto (Cokroaminoto) and activist in the Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia (PSII) until his expulsion in 1939 over policy differences. In 1940 he established a school, the Suffah Institute, in Garut (West Java) to give religious and general education to young Mus- lims; this was closed by the Japanese in 1942, but Kartosuwiryo used con- tacts made then to form a branch of the Hizbullah in 1945. He joined Masjumi but felt betrayed by the party’s agreement to implement the Renville Agreement and by the Siliwangi Division’s abandonment of West Java in early 1948. He established the Islamic Army of Indonesia (Tentara Islam Indonesia, TII) and in May of 1948 an Islamic administra- tion in the Garut region with the name Darul Islam (DI) and with himself as imam, or religious leader. On 7 August 1949 he officially proclaimed an Islamic State of Indonesia (Negara Islam Indonesia, NII), which fought the Republic of Indonesia. He remained the central figure in the West Java DI until he was captured by government forces in April 1962 and executed in September. He is one of the inspirations for Abu Bakar Ba’asyir and oth- ers involved in radical Islamic activities in the early 2000s. [0693]

KARYAWAN (from karya, task, and -wan, person). A term coined in the 1960s to describe all employees of a firm or office, including management. It was used as an alternative to the word buruh (worker, laborer) to avoid the implication that workers might have interests separate from those of management. See also LABOR; LABOR UNIONS. [0430]

KENPEITAI • 215 KEBATINAN (also called kejawen, agama Jawa, or “Javanism”). Javanese

mysticism, incorporating animist, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic (espe- cially Sufi) mystical elements but often denying adherence to Islam. Of- ficially legitimized by Article 29 of the 1945 Constitution, which dis- tinguishes and acknowledges both religion (agama) and belief (kepercayaan), it is organized in hundreds of separate associations (e.g., Paguyuban Ngèsti Tunggal [Pangestu]) and is administered by the Ministry of Education and Culture rather than by Religious Affairs. Pres- ident Suharto was personally associated with kebatinan, although during the last decade of his rule he stressed more publicly his Islamic be- liefs. See also ABANGAN; ISLAMIC STATE, DEMANDS FOR. [1242, 1357, 1368]

KEDIRI. Kingdom in East Java created by the decision of Airlangga in the mid-11th century to divide his kingdom. Kediri sponsored a major flowering of Javanese culture but was overthrown by Ken Angrok, founder of Singasari in 1221–1222. See also JOYOBOYO.

KEIBODAN. Civil guard formed on Java during the Japanese occupation

to undertake routine security tasks such as evening village patrols. Though Keibodan units were generally armed only with bamboo stakes, the quasi- military experience they provided laid a basis in parts of Java for the for- mation of badan perjuangan during the Revolution. [0661, 0663]

KEJAWEN. See KEBATINAN. KEMPEITAI. See KENPEITAI. KEN ANGROK (?–1227). According to both the Nagarakrtagama and

the Pararaton, the former brigand Ken Angrok first came to prominence when he murdered the regent of Tumapel with a kris he had specially commissioned from the master smith Mpu Gandring, whom he also killed. Having implicated the dead regent’s bodyguards in the murder, Ken Angrok seized power, married the regent’s widow Ken Dedes, and launched a revolt against the king of Kediri, whom he defeated at the battle of Genter (1221). He founded the kingdom of Singasari at Tumapel in 1222 and reigned as Rangga Rajasa until his death in 1227.

KENPEITAI. Japanese military police force, founded in 1881, whose role was extended in occupied Indonesia and elsewhere to surveillance of the

216 • KEPERCAYAAN civilian population, censorship, and the collection of intelligence. The

Kenpeitai gained a reputation for gratuitous cruelty and of 538 members of staff on Java at the end of the war, 199 were later committed for trial on war crimes charges. [0663, 0667, 0680]

KEPERCAYAAN. See KEBATINAN.

KERBAU. Water buffalo (Bubalis bubalis; not to be confused with the ban-

teng). Kerbau were introduced to Indonesia after 1000 B.C., probably from India via Thailand. They quickly took on great importance as draft animals and sources of milk, becoming a measure of wealth and, by ex- tension, a symbol of power. Buffalo and tiger fights were a common en- tertainment on Java, and buffalo fights occasionally replaced battles; according to legend, the Minangkabau averted certain defeat in battle with Javanese by proposing a buffalo fight. Against the Javanese buffalo they sent a thirsty calf with knives tied to its head, which gored the Javanese beast while the calf nuzzled for milk. Individual buffalo can be identified by distinctive hair whorls, which are sometimes believed also to reflect individual character. [1154]

KERINCI. Isolated upland valley situated on the border between West Sumatra and Jambi, taking its name from Mt. Kerinci, the highest mountain (3,806 meters) on Sumatra and an active volcano. Culturally and politically, too, Kerinci exists on the fringes of the Minangkabau region and the sultanate of Jambi. Gold was an important export from the region in the 17th and early 18th centuries, but was gradually overshad- owed by rice and by cinnamon produced for trade with the British in Bengkulu. [0834, 0840]

KESATUAN AKSI MAHASISWA INDONESIA (KAMI, Indonesian Students’ Action Front). Founded on 25 October 1965 to spearhead the suppression of the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) and the Left in general following the Gestapu coup of 30 September, it staged street marches and launched a campaign of pamphleteering. It was sponsored by and worked closely with the anticommunist Brigadier General Kemal Idris and Colonel Sarwo Edhie. From January 1966 it expressed its demands as the Tritura (Tri-Tuntutan Hatinurani Rakyat, Three Demands from the Bottom of the People’s Hearts): abolish the PKI, purge the cab- inet, and reduce prices. In much of its action, it cooperated closely with the Komando Aksi Pemuda dan Pelajar Indonesia (KAPPI) representing school children, and the Komando Aksi Sarjana Indonesia (KASI) repre-

KOLUSI, KORUPSI, DAN NEPOTISME • 217 senting graduates. In the early 1970s KAMI split between those who

were absorbed into the government establishment and those who became increasingly critical of New Order policies. In 1973 the progovernment group became the core of the new Komité Nasional Pemuda Indonesia (KNPI). See also STUDENTS. [0727]

KETERBUKAAN (“openness”). A tentative and ultimately unsuccessful effort in the early 1990s to open up Indonesian society to greater freedom of speech and expression. It began in December 1989 when Army Chief of Staff Edi Sudrajat advocated more open discussion of differences, and Suharto followed up in his 1990 independence day speech by calling for greater expression of differences of opinion. However, when Nano Ri- antiarno in a satirical play, Suksesi, accepted the offer, the government closed the play down after only 11 days and again imposed restrictions on such opposition playwrights as W. S. Rendra. After he had arranged his reelection to a sixth five-year term in 1993, Suharto made another step toward keterbukaan, when he reached a compromise with a few dis- sidents and released some Islamic radicals from jail. This effort, too, was tentative and short-lived, and in early 1994 the labor activist Mochtar Pakpaham and a number of other labor leaders were arrested and the most outspoken news magazines, Detik, Editor, and Tempo, were closed down. See also CENSORSHIP. [0748, 0751, 0940]

KIDUNG SUNDA. Semihistorical Javanese poem. Hayam Wuruk, king of Majapahit, obtained the hand of the daughter of the king of Pajajaran, but on the arrival of the Sundanese wedding party at Bubat in East Java, the Majapahit courtiers insisted that the marriage meant Pajajaran would accept Javanese overlordship and that, in some versions, the princess would be Hayam Wuruk’s concubine, not his queen. The Sundanese king refused to accept this insult, fought the Javanese, and was slaughtered along with his men while his daughter committed suicide. [0159]

KOELIEORDONNANTIE. See COOLIE ORDINANCE. KOLUSI, KORUPSI, DAN NEPOTISME (KKN, Collusion, Corruption,

and Nepotism). The call to arms of the antigovernment demonstrators in the reformasi movement characterized the failings of the Suharto regime that they were determined to change. It remained a potent charge that was brought against leading politicians in the subsequent B. J. Habi- bie, Abdurrachman Wahid, and Megawati Sukarnoputri regimes.

218 • KOMANDO JIHAD KOMANDO JIHAD (Holy War Command). A shadowy Islamic organiza-

tion probably founded at the instigation of Ali Murtopo and his security apparatus in the mid-1970s and said to be fighting for an Islamic state in Indonesia, much as the Darul Islam (DI) did in earlier years. Former DI leaders reportedly headed the command, but most were arrested in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Actions attributed to or associated with the Komando Jihad include the hijacking of a Garuda DC9 aircraft and an at- tack on the Cicendo police station near Bandung in 1981 and a suppos- edly Islamic rising in Lampung in 1989. Imran Muhammad Zein was executed in February 1985 for his part in the 1981 events. It has been re- ported that the Komando Jihad provided a foundation for the Jemaah Is- lamiyah (JI, Islamic Community), a shadowy and loose-knit association, allegedly advocating establishment, if necessary by violent means, of an Islamic state embracing not only Indonesia but also Malaysia and the Philippines. See also ISLAM IN INDONESIA. [1031, 1039]

KAHAR MUZAKKAR (also spelled Qahhar Mudzakkar) (1921–1965).