SAGO (Metroxylon rumphii and M. sagu and other palms, Arecaceae).

Palm trees found widely in swamps, especially in eastern Indonesia, where flour prepared from the pith of the trunk is a staple food. Wild and domestic varieties are indistinguishable and sago was seldom an object of trade, being mainly consumed by its producers. Only in the early 19th century was sago briefly in commercial demand for use in sizing cotton, until it was displaced by maize starch. [0344]

SAILENDRA. A powerful family of Buddhist rulers who arose in Central

Java in the mid-eighth century and adopted the title maharaja (see IN-

DIA, HISTORICAL LINKS WITH). Their court became a major center of Buddhist scholarship, and they were responsible for the construc-

SALT • 381 tion of Borobudur. Although they almost certainly ruled through a dif-

fuse system of alliances and vassalages, they promoted a largely Indian doctrine of divine kingship. Through intermarriage, Sailendras also came to rule Srivijaya in the late ninth century after they had been displaced on Java.

SALEH, CHAERUL. See CHAERUL SALEH. SALEH, RADEN (Raden Saleh Bustaman) (1814–1880). After showing

interest in Western culture, especially painting, Raden Saleh was sponsored by Governor-General van der Capellan to study art in the Nether- lands. He came under the influence of Delacroix and lived in Europe for

20 years, becoming royal painter at the Dutch court. On his return to Java, he was in some demand as a painter of landscapes and portraits. He is recognized as the first modern native painter in the Indies, and he influenced the “Beautiful Indies” school whose naturalistic landscapes and portraiture dominated modern Indonesian art in the first decades of the 20th century. [0159, 0202]

SALIM GROUP. Incorporated in 1968, the Salim group was successor to PT Waringin, a trading company that had been granted lucrative official licenses to export primary products. It was headed by Liem Sioe Liong, Djuhar Sutanto (Liem Oen Kian), Suharto’s cousin Sudwikatmono, and Ibrahim Risyad. Its major foreign partners were Datsun and Mazda. The crown jewel of the Salim group was Bank Central Asia, but this was taken over by the government after a multibillion-dollar bailout in 1998. In early 2002, when Indonesia was preparing to seize a majority stake in the bank, the Salim group tried to buy it back. Of growing importance in the Salim group’s holdings was Indofood, the world’s largest manufacturer of instant noodles, which became one of Indonesian’s leading com- panies in 2002. See also BANKING. (0314, 0761)

SALT. As an essential for life, salt was manufactured from seawater from very early times along the coasts of Indonesia and from mineral sources in a few inland regions; in Grobogan in Central Java, salty mud volcanoes are tapped, while the Dani in Papua extract it by soaking palm and banana leaves in saltwater seeps, drying and burning them. The southern coastal regions of Madura and north coast of East Java, however, have long been the main areas of salt production, local rulers traditionally farming out pachten to Chinese businessmen. In 1813 Thomas Stamford Raffles established a

382 • SAMA RASA SAMA RATA government monopoly on salt production and sale, though the operation

was still run through pachten. In 1904 the trade in salt was placed under a government production and selling agency, the Zout-Regie, whose opera- tions were combined with those of the state opium monopoly. The salt monopoly was abolished in 1957, the state salt works becoming a formal state enterprise in 1960.

SAMA RASA SAMA RATA (lit., “same feeling, same level”). Term coined by Mas Marco Kartodikromo (?–1932) in 1918 to express the egalitarian element in nationalist thought. It was modern socialist in its inspiration but reflected traditional ideas of a “golden age” of justice and prosperity. See also JOYOBOYO. [0632]

SAMIN MOVEMENT. Peasant movement founded around 1890 by Surontiko Samin (?–1914) in the Blora area of Central Java. Saminists attracted Dutch attention by refusing to pay taxes, but their beliefs were broader, encompassing egalitarianism, individual ownership of land, and

a “religion of Adam” that apparently predated Hindu and Muslim influence on Java (see ASLI). Samin was exiled in 1907 but the movement survived until at least the 1960s. [0472, 0486]

SANDALWOOD (Santalum album, Santalaceae, cendana). Small, para- sitic evergreen tree, probably native to Indonesia, cultivated for its aro- matic heartwood and root, which are most fragrant in trees growing in dry, rocky soils. Sandalwood occurs extensively from East Java to Timor and was exported to China and India for incense, medicines, per- fumery, and cosmetics. [0339, 0527]

SANGIË (or Sangir) ISLANDS. See MINAHASA. SANTRI. Term originally referring to a student of any religion (hence pe-

santren ) but now commonly used, after Clifford Geertz, for one of the broad sociocultural groupings or aliran of modern Java, that is, the so- called pious or orthodox Muslims, also called putihan or white ones, whose religion contains relatively fewer or no influences from the pre-Muslim tra- ditions of Java. Like the expression “Outer Islands,” the term is immensely useful for general discussion but has serious flaws when used for detailed analysis, largely because the term has been taken from Geertz’s East Java context and applied to many different cases where Muslims of different de- grees of orthodoxy face each other. See also ISLAM. [1340]

SAREKAT ISLAM • 383 SARA (Suku, Agama, Ras, Antar-golongan, or ethnicity, religion, race, and

intergroup relations). Areas that under the New Order were to be avoided as topics of public discussion, especially in the field of politics, in order to limit the possibility of conflict among contending groups.

SAREKAT ISLAM (SI, Islamic Association). Founded in 1909 as Sarekat Dagang Islam (SDI, Islamic Traders’ Association) by Kyai Samanhudi (1868–?), a batik manufacturer and merchant from Surakarta, along with R. M. Tirtoadisuryo and Haji Umar Said Tjokroaminoto, both priyayi involved in the batik trade. The initial aim of the association was to combat Chinese penetration of the batik industry, and SDI sponsored cooperatives among indigenous traders and organized boycotts of the Chinese. On 10 September 1912 the SDI took the name Sarekat Islam and adopted a broader political program challenging the colonial government while continuing its promotion of cooperatives and publishing the nationalist newspaper Oetoesan Hindia (Indies Courier).

SI’s expression of discontent with the colonial order won it wide pop- ular support, and in 1919 it claimed a membership of 2,000,000, though its practical following was always far smaller. Its program, however, was confused. It aimed at the promotion of Islam and of commercial spirit among Indonesians, but it was also influenced by the anticapitalism of the Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging (ISDV), many of whose members, including Semaun, also joined SI. At its first national congress in June 1916, SI promised cooperation with the colonial government for the good of the country, and in 1918 SI leaders accepted seats in the Volksraad, but already in 1917 the party had condemned “sinful” (i.e., exploitative and foreign) capitalism and in 1919 a secret branch within the SI, called the Afdeling B (Section B), was implicated in subversive activities in West Java. Arrests and surveillance by the colonial authorities followed, and much of SI’s following fell away.

Although relatively conservative urban traders initially dominated SI, more radical Muslim kyai from the villages, together with members of the ISDV and later the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI), had gradually gained more influence, sharpening the contrast between SI’s Islamic and

Marxist wings. At the Surabaya congress in October 1921, Abdul

Muis and Haji Agus Salim (1884–1954) forced a break with the PKI by insisting that SI members could belong to no other party. PKI leaders left the central SI in 1922 and local branches divided into “Red” and “White” SI according to their allegiances, the Red branches later calling them- selves Sarekat Rakyat (People’s Unions) and affiliating with the PKI.

384 • SAREKAT RAKYAT This infighting further damaged SI’s support and by 1923, when

Tjokroaminoto transformed the SI rump into the Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia, it was only a minor political force. [0632, 0661]

SAREKAT RAKYAT. See SAREKAT ISLAM. SASAKS. See LOMBOK.

SAVU (Sawu). Small island in Nusatenggara. As on Roti, the economy

was based on tapping lontar palms. The Dutch signed a treaty with local rulers in 1756. Savunese were extensively recruited by the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) as soldiers, and Savunese Christian mi- grants formed much of the elite in Sumba and Dutch Timor in the 19th and 20th centuries. The island was devastated by smallpox in 1869. [1220]

SAWITO KARTOWIBOWO (1932–). In 1976 Sawito prepared a series of documents, some of which were signed by such eminent figures as

Mohammad Hatta, Haji Abdul Malik bin Abdulkarim Amrullah

(Hamka), Cardinal Darmojuwono, and T. B. Simatupang (1920–1990), criticizing alleged failures in national development under the New Or- der and calling on Suharto to resign and hand over power to Hatta. Though Sawito had no institutional base and no prospect of success, his challenge was unexpected and unwelcome. The affair was described as a “constitutional coup” by government spokesmen, and in 1978 Sawito was convicted of subversion and sentenced to eight years in jail. [0722]

SAYAP KIRI (Left Wing). Semiformal coalition of left-wing parties, the

Partai Sosialis (PS), the Partai Buruh Indonesia (PBI), and the Par-

tai Komunis Indonesia (PKI), formed in December 1946. The Sayap Kiri formed the basis of the Sjahrir and Amir Sjarifuddin cabinets and pursued a policy of negotiating with the Dutch while building up the Re- public’s armed forces. Under Sjarifuddin, special favor was given to semiregular forces such as the Pemuda Sosialis Indonesia (Pesindo). In opposition from January 1948, the parties turned sharply against all ne- gotiations and coalesced in February into the Front Demokrasi Rakyat (FDR). [0661, 0674, 0865]

SCANDINAVIA, HISTORICAL LINKS WITH. The Danish East India Company traded to Java in the 17th century, maintaining posts at

SEMARANG • 385 Japara and Banten, and in the same period a great many Scandinavians

served as officials and soldiers with the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC). The great Swedish botanist Carl Linné (Linnaeus, 1701–1778) worked with Indies plants in Leiden in 1735–1737 and was the first to cultivate a banana tree to fruit in northern Europe. A number of his stu- dents, notably Pehr Osbeck (1725–1805), Carl Peter Thunberg (1743–1832), and Clas Fredrick Hornstedt, made important botanical collections on Java, in some cases with the cooperation of the Swedish East India Company. See also LANGE, M. J.

SCOUTING. The Nederlandsch-Indische Padvinders Vereeniging (Nether- lands Indies Scouting Association) was formed in 1917 as a multiracial nonpolitical organization along the lines of Robert Baden-Powell’s organization. Later, however, exclusively Indonesian scouting organizations, the Kepanduan Bangsa Indonesia and Persatuan Pandu Islam, were formed, especially on Sumatra, as an adjunct to the nationalist movement. Many political organizations had affiliated scouting groups, which numbered 76 by 1960. In 1961, Sukarno forced all scouting groups to merge into the Pramuka (Praja Muda Karana). In 1978 Pramuka had a membership of 7 million.

SEINENDAN. Semimilitary youth corps established by the Japanese oc-

cupation authorities on Java on 29 April 1943 to mobilize young men aged 14–25 for the war effort, especially in urban areas. Its duties in- cluded patrol and guard duties, and many Seinendan units later became the basis for badan perjuangan. See also KEIBODAN. [0663, 0674]

SEMAR. One of the clowns (punakawan) of traditional Javanese wayang. Foolish and ugly, he is also immensely wise and powerful, representing in some views the strength of the common people. Though he appears in the Indian-origin Mahabharata, Semar appears to be an indigenous tra- dition and during the New Order was sometimes identified with Presi- dent Suharto. See also SUPERSEMAR. [0132, 0159, 0736]

SEMARANG. Town and entrepôt in north-central Java, ceded by Susuhu- nan Amangkurat II (r. 1677–1703) to the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) in 1678, an agreement confirmed in 1705. During their 1740 up- rising, the Chinese besieged the VOC’s headquarters at Semarang, sup- ported by forces of Pakubuwana II. The VOC retook the town the following year, massacring the Chinese. During the second half of the 18th

386 • SENTRAL ORGANISASI BURUH SELURUH INDONESIA century and the first half of the 19th century, Semarang was the seat of

the governor of Java’s Northeast Coast, becoming economically the most important town in central Java and its major center for trade. In 1870 the Dutch dug a canal connecting it to the sea so that large trading ships could carry their goods directly to the town. In the late colonial period, as the headquarters of the railway and tram workers’ union, it became an important center of the left wing of the Sarekat Islam (SI) under Se- maun, with 20,000 members in 1917.

At the end of the Japanese occupation in October 1945, it was the site of bitter conflict between Japanese, Republicans, and British for control of the town, which left perhaps more than 2,000 Japanese and In- donesians dead. The Dutch occupied Semarang during their first “Police Action” of July 1947. [0484, 0632, 0643]

SENTRAL ORGANISASI BURUH SELURUH INDONESIA (SOBSI, All-Indonesia Federation of Labor Organizations). Founded in Novem- ber 1946, it was for much of the Revolution the only such coordinating body for labor unions. Though never formally affiliated with the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI), it was influenced by the party from its foun- dation and was a part of the broad communist front from 1950, when Ny- ono Prawiro became president. Although a federation of unions that in- cluded Sarbupri (plantation workers), SBG (sugar industry workers) and Sarbuksi (forest workers), it regarded members of its constituent unions as direct SOBSI members. It was estimated to control 50 to 60 percent of organized labor, but was shadowed in every field by noncommunist unions such as those affiliated with the Sentral Organisasi Karyawan Seluruh Indonesia (SOKSI), which made the organization of strike ac- tivity difficult. SOBSI was banned in 1966. [0436, 0994]

SAGO (Metroxylon rumphii and M. sagu and other palms, Arecaceae).