Instructional Design Model Determining goals, topic, and general purposes for teaching each topic

9

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is intended to review some theories related to the study and to formulate the theoretical framework of the study. Therefore, the writer divides this chapter into two major sections; they are Theoretical Description and Theoretical Framework. The Theoretical Description provides the theoretical issues related to the problem, while the Theoretical Framework explains the thread of the theories to formulate the orientation of the study.

A. Theoretical Description

This section presents five major points referring to the related theories used in this study. They are Instructional Design Model, School-Based Curriculum, Communicative Language Teaching, Task-Based Instructions, and Listening.

1. Instructional Design Model

Developing a set of listening materials needs a system of instructional program design to be followed. In this study, the writer referred to Kemp’s model as the main instructional model for the design of the materials. Kemp’s Model Kemp states that in building a successful program, there must be an approach called the systems approach that involves the development of an overall PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 10 plan incorporating parts of a process in a sequential pattern Kemp, 1977: 6. There are three essential elements of instructional technology stated by Kemp 1977: 8 which are, objectives what to be learned, method what procedures and resources will work best to reach the learning levels, and evaluation how will we know the learning we prepared to occur. In order to maintain those three essential elements, there are eight steps that must be accomplished in the designed plan Kemp, 1977: 8, they are:

1. Determining goals, topic, and general purposes for teaching each topic

In determining the instructional design, a designer should decide the goals of the system, choose what topics to be taught, and list the general purposes of each topic. Topics are usually sequenced according to a logical organization; therefore, the topics should be arranged from the simple to the complex level. 2. Enumerating learners’ characteristic The designer should obtain the information about the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interests. This step is important because learners’ characteristics will affect the emphases in instructional planning including the selection of topics and the level at which topics are introduced, the choice and sequencing of objectives, the depth of treatment, and the variety of learning activities. 3. Specifying learning objectives In this step, the designer should decide what learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes. Also, the objectives should be unambiguous so that the students are able to reach the objectives. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 11 4. Listing the subject content Subject content supports each objective and must closely relate to the objectives and to the students’ needs. Subject content includes the organization of the content and task analysis. By doing task analysis, the designer can make sure that all elements of a procedure are considered in the planning and will therefore be treated properly during instruction. 5. Developing pre-assessment This step is aimed to determine the student’s background and the present level of knowledge about the topic. Pre-assessment has two kinds of tests; they are pre-requisite testing and pre-testing. A pre-requisite test is to determine whether the students have the appropriate background preparation for the topic. Pre-testing is to determine which of the objective students may have already achieved. 6. Selecting teachinglearning activities and instructional resources The designer has her own skill and rights to select the activity and methods for the learning activities that will enable the students to master the objectives. Also, the designer is to know the strength and weaknesses of alternative methods and of various materials that suit to the students’ characteristic and needs. 7. Coordinating support services The support services are budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedule to carry out the instructional plan. If one element is missing, it will PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 12 affect the other elements. This shows that the designer should prepare each element in order to prevent any possible constraints in designing the plan. 8. Evaluating the students’ learning The last is evaluating the students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a consideration to revise and reevaluate any phases of the plan that need improvement. The evaluation is conducted to test whether the materials are successfully implemented for the students. Kemp 1977: 9 states that the development process may start in any level and can move to other steps whenever the designer is ready. Therefore, the steps are independent elements they have a close relationship to another. The broken lines in the diagrams indicate revisions of elements made necessary by evaluation data gathered on students’ accomplishment of objectives. Kemp offers a flexible model Kemp, 1977: 9. This is the strength of Kemp’s model. The diagram in Figure 2.1 illustrates the relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps. According to Soekamto 1993: 21-28, the strengths of Kemp’s models are first, in the process of designing and in the process of developing the instructional materials; second, this model focuses on the materials resources, goals, uses and the choice of learning resources; third, the model can be applied to all levels of education which can be used as the design system for a small unit and as a whole subject for university. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 13 In this study, the writer conducted the steps of Kemp’s design in composing the design of the listening materials for the first semester of the tenth grade students of SMA Dominikus Wonosari. Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Diagram 1977: 9

2. School-Based Curriculum