22 achieve an objective. Generally, basic pair-work and group work are often used to
increase the students’ interaction and collaboration. There are several characteristics of a task stated by Jack J. Richards
2005, 33-34. First, task is something that learners do or carry out using their existing language resources. The second is that when the learners are carrying out
the task, the learning acquisition may occur. Furthermore, the task in Task-Based Instructions involves a focus on meaning, and it involves two or more learners to
realize the communication strategies and interactional skills. Based on the characteristics of tasks from the TBI point of view, there are
two kinds of tasks in TBI Nunan, 2004: 1; they are real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. Real-world tasks refer to uses of language in the world beyond
the classroom, while pedagogical tasks are usually designed for the classroom, which requires the use of specific interactional strategies and the use of specific
types of language skills, grammar, and vocabulary. In TBI, the activities used are those that increase the learners’ activities,
not the teachers’. The teachers themselves need to produce and supply different tasks which help the learners to experience the target language spontaneously,
individually and originally Willis, 1996: 25. It is expected that the learners would obtain new experience with the target language through the tasks given
which is indicated by some errors during the communication practices.
a. Varieties of Tasks
Many of the activities in CLT could be described as tasks according to the understanding of the characteristic of the task itself. There are six types of tasks
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23 proposed by Willis 1996: 26-27:
1 Listing Listing tasks tend to generate a lot of talk as learners explain their ideas. It
involves two stages, namely brainstorming and fact-finding. In brainstorming, the learners would draw their experiences and knowledge either in class or in
grouppairs. Whereas in fact-finding the learners are required to find out things by asking each other or other people and referring to books and many others.
2 Ordering and Sorting These tasks involve four main processes. First, the students are required to
sequence items, events, or actions in a chronological order. Second is ranking items according to personal values or specified criteria. Third is categorizing
items in groups, and the last is classifying items in different ways, where the categories themselves are not given.
3 Comparing These tasks involve comparing information of similar nature but from
different sources or versions in order to identify common points andor differences. The processes involved in this task are matching to identify specific
points and relate them to each other, finding similarities and things in common, and also finding the differences.
4 Problem solving These tasks involve people’s intellectual and reasoning powers, and
though challenging, they are engaging and often satisfying to solve. The process would depend on the type and complexity of the problem.
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24 5 Sharing personal experiences
These tasks encourage learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others. The process could be narrating, describing,
exploring and explaining attitudes, opinion, and reactions. Since this task is not goal-oriented as in other tasks, it may be difficult to be carried out in the
classroom. 6 Creative tasks
These are often called projects and involve pairs or groups of learners in some kind of freer creative work. These tasks tend to have more stages than other
tasks, and could involve combinations of task types. The learners could be more creative using the target language they learn. The process could be
brainstorming, fact-finding, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem sorting and many others.
These kinds of tasks involve different cognitive process and support the activities developed in the design. Some of the tasks would be combined and
applied since they are appropriate for the needs in this study, and they could support the learners to have their listening activities in the classroom.
b. Learner Roles in Task-Based Instructions
