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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses the theories or related literature which is used in this research to answer the research problems. This chapter is divided into two
parts: theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description discusses the theory of instructional design models, Communicative
Language Teaching CLT, the teaching activities in senior high school, and related studies on CLT. The theoretical framework discusses the framework based
on the theoretical description in order to answer the research problem.
A. Theoretical Description
In this part, the researcher discusses the theory of instructional design models, Communicative Language Teaching CLT, the teaching activities in
senior high school, and related studies on CLT.
1. Instructional Design Models
The instructional design models are helpful to design a set of instructional materials. The guidelines of the instructional design models can be used in order
to create a good and appropriate design for certain learners. This study uses Kemp’s and Dick and Carrey’s design models.
a. Kemp’s design model
According to Kemp 1977, p.8, in designing a set of materials, there are three important questions to be answered. Those three important questions are as
follows:
11 1
What must be learned? objectives 2
What procedures and resources will work the best to reach the desired learning levels? activities and resources
3 How will we know when the required learning has taken place? evaluation
In order to answer those three questions, Kemp also states the steps on designing materials plan. The eight steps are illustrated as follows:
Figure 1.1. Kemp’s design model Source: Kemp, J. E. 1977, p.9. Instructional design. California: Fearon-Pitman
Publishers, Inc.
The explanation of the previous illustration steps of plan is: 1
Goals, Topics, and General Purposes The first step in designing a material is deciding the goals, topics, and
general purposes of the study. Goals can be decided by deriving from three 11
1 What must be learned? objectives
2 What procedures and resources will work the best to reach the desired
learning levels? activities and resources 3
How will we know when the required learning has taken place? evaluation In order to answer those three questions, Kemp also states the steps on
designing materials plan. The eight steps are illustrated as follows:
Figure 1.1. Kemp’s design model Source: Kemp, J. E. 1977, p.9. Instructional design. California: Fearon-Pitman
Publishers, Inc.
The explanation of the previous illustration steps of plan is: 1
Goals, Topics, and General Purposes The first step in designing a material is deciding the goals, topics, and
general purposes of the study. Goals can be decided by deriving from three 11
1 What must be learned? objectives
2 What procedures and resources will work the best to reach the desired
learning levels? activities and resources 3
How will we know when the required learning has taken place? evaluation In order to answer those three questions, Kemp also states the steps on
designing materials plan. The eight steps are illustrated as follows:
Figure 1.1. Kemp’s design model Source: Kemp, J. E. 1977, p.9. Instructional design. California: Fearon-Pitman
Publishers, Inc.
The explanation of the previous illustration steps of plan is: 1
Goals, Topics, and General Purposes The first step in designing a material is deciding the goals, topics, and
general purposes of the study. Goals can be decided by deriving from three
12 sources: the society, students, and subject areas. After establishing the goals,
topics are chosen. The topics would become the scope of the course or program, the basis for the instruction. After the topics have been selected, the general
purposes are selected too. General purposes must not be ambiguous and must be clear enough about what are going to be achieved for the topic Kemp, 1977, pp.
13-16. 2
Learner characteristics The characteristics of the learner must be decided when designing an
instructional plan. The characteristics of the students which have to be known and would be most helpful are as follows:
Academic factors: number of students, academic background, grade-point
average, level of intelligence, reading level, scores on standardized achievement and aptitude tests, study habits, ability to work alone,
background in the subject or topic, motivation for studying the subject, expectations of the course, vocational and cultural aspirations.
Social factors: age, maturity, attention span, special talents, physical and
emotional handicaps, relations among students, socioeconomic situation. Kemp, 1977, pp. 18-20.
3 Learning Objectives
This step is essential in designing an instructional material. The learning objectives must be clear and can be measured. This step is to know what the
students should know or be able to do or in what ways should they behave differently, after studying this topic. According to Kemp’s theory 1977, learning
13 objectives can be grouped into three major categories: cognitive, psychomotor,
and affective. The cognitive domain includes objectives which concern knowledge, or information, and thinking. The psychomotor domain treats the
skills requiring use and coordination of skeletal muscles, as in physical activities of performing, manipulating, and construction. The affective domain involves
objectives which concern attitudes, appreciations, values, and all emotions. 4
Subject Content The subject content comprises the selection and organizing of the specific
knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements, and attitudinal factors of any topics Kemp, 1977, p. 44
5 Pre-Assessment
The pre-assessment is done in order to know which students are prepared and at the same time to make sure that learners do not waste their time on things
they already know Kemp, 1977, p.51. 6
TeachingLearning Activities, Resources This step is to determine what instructional methods and instructional
resources will be the most appropriate for accomplishing each objective. The most efficient and effective methods must be determined and then materials are selected
to provide learning experiences that will utilize the content which is associated with each objective. The most effective and efficient here can be called in other
words as the best way. The selection which is made based on the learner
14 characteristics and needs that will best serve the established objectives Kemp,
1977, pp. 57-58. 7
Support Services What needs to find is what support services are required to implement the
design plan. The services may include funds, facilities, equipment, and time and schedules Kemp, 1977, p. 84.
8 Evaluation
In this step, what needs to do is evaluating the students’ learning whether or not they have achieved the objectives. In evaluation, the material designer can
revise and improve several parts of the materials which need to be revised and improved Kemp, 1977, pp. 91-92
b. Dick and Carey’s design model