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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter provides the theories related to the research. This chapter consists of two parts. The first part is theoretical description which presents the
theories of metaphor. The second part is theoretical framework which provides the main theories to solve the research problems.
A. Theoretical Description
This section discusses the theories dealing with the metaphor and meanings of the metaphors.
1. Pragmatics
Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. Leech 1983 defines pragmatics as the study of meaning in relation
to speech situations.Leech 1983 also states that one cannot really understand the nature of language itself unless he understands pragmatics. The problem of
distinguishing “language” and “language use” concerns in the differences of semantics and pragmatics. Although semantics and pragmatics concerned with
meaning, but Leech 1983 argues that the difference between them can be traced to two different uses of the verb to mean:
1 What does X mean?
2 What did you mean by X?
In expression 1, the meaning of semantics is defined purely as a property of expressions in a given language, in abstraction from particular situations,
8 speakers, or hearers. The meaning of pragmatics is defined relative to speaker or
user of the language like in expression 2.
2. The Definition of Metaphor
According to Cameron and Low 1999, metaphor is a mental phenomenon which can be manifested in language. The term metaphor comes
from Greek word which has literally meaning of “transfer”. Cruse 2000 adds that the transference occurswithin the meaning of one expression to another
expression. Other definitions of metaphor come from several researchers. Smith 1981 defines metaphor as a figure of speech in which the meaning of a term or
phrase is transferred from the object it ordinarily designates to another object to provide new insight or perspective on the latter. According to Burke 1945:503,
metaphor is a device for seeing something in terms of something else. From those definitions, the researcher concludes that the term metaphor can be defined as a
process whereby the meanings and relationships of one theory or model may be used to suggest meanings or relationships in another area. However, different
person has different ability to understand the metaphor concept. The occurrence of metaphor concept is commonly seen as figurative language only. Besides, an
expression can also contain more than one metaphor concepts. Giora 2003 argues that many advertisements, headlines, jokes and stories require the readers
to construct a range of non-metaphorical and metaphorical senses for the same words. In this research, the context of the expression can lead the different
metaphorical meaning interpretation.According to Fauconnier and Turner 2002, the context may involve predictable sense, but the readers may well have to
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