27 students to evaluate their own work or to evaluate each other’s work and give
peer feedback can be one of the alternative ways that can be used by the teacher in this stage. It will lead them to be more responsible for their own
writing. 7
Post-writing Post-writing is any activity that conducted in the end of writing lesson. The
activities in this stage include sharing students’ works, making conclusion and giving feedback, giving motivation to the students, etc.
In conclusion, there are several steps that always appearing in the process of writing. Those steps are planning, drafting, editing, and revising or final drafting.
The writer should at least follow those four steps to produce a good writing production.
c. Macro and Micro Skills of Writing
Canale and Swain’s 1980 in Hyland 2003: 32 state a framework that writers need in writing. This framework consists of four competences in writing:
grammatical competence includes knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and the language system; discourse competence includes knowledge of genre and the
rhetorical patterns that create them; sociolinguistic competence includes the ability to use language appropriately in different contexts, understanding readers
and adopting appropriate authorial attitudes; strategic competence includes the ability to use a variety of communicative strategies.
In addition, Brown 2004: 221 mentions 12 macro and micro-skills of writing. The macro and micro-skills of writing are presented below.
28
Micro-skills of writing
1 Produce graphemes and orthographic patterns of English.
2 Produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
3 Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns.
4 Use acceptable grammatical systems e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization,
patterns, and rules. 5
Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms. 6
Use cohesive devices in written discourse.
Macro-skills of writing
1 Use rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse.
2 Appropriately accomplish the communicative functions of written text
according to form and purpose. 3
Convey links and connection between events and communicate such resolutions as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given
information, generalization, and exemplification. 4
Distinguish between literal and implied meanings when writing. 5
Correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written text.
6 Develop and use the battery of writing strategies, such as accurately assessing
the audience’s interpretation, using prewriting devices, writing with fluency in the first drafts, using paraphrases and synonyms, soliciting peer and
instructor feedback, and using feedback for revising and editing.
As one of four skills in language, writing has its own macro and micro-skills that cannot be separated with writing itself. The teacher needs to direct the students to
focus more on those macro and micro-skills rather than the final writing product. The students’ writing will be better as they improve their knowledge and ability
on those skills.
3. Picture Series
Pictures are often involved in language teaching and learning process. Teachers make use of pictures to create various activities and to get students’
attention in learning. Harmer 2001 says that teachers have always used pictures whether those are drawn, taken from books, newspapers and magazines, or
29 photographs to facilitate learning. In addition, Wright 1989: 2 says that pictures
are not just a feature of method but by their representation of places, objects and people they are an important part of experience that we have to help the students
to deal with. According to Wright pictures can contribute as a motivator; a sense of the context of the language; and a specific reference point or stimulus in
language teaching. Based on the explanation above it can be seen that pictures are very
helpful for the teacher in delivering the lesson. Pictures, particularly picture series, are also very beneficial for both teacher and students in teaching and learning
writing. According to Raimes 1983: 27 pictures can be valuable resources in teaching writing in ESL class. Pictures can provide four functions. The first is as a
shared experience in the classroom that drives to a variety of language activities. Second is as a need for common language forms and vocabulary to use in the
classroom. Third is as a variety of tasks that ranging from fairly mechanical controlled compositions, sentence-combining exercises, or sequencing of
s entences. Fourth is as a focus of students’ interests, since everybody likes to look
at the pictures and pictures themselves can bring outside world into the classroom in a clearly concrete way.
In the other hand, Wright 1989: 17 suggests that pictures can be used in similar ways in teaching both speaking and writing skills productive skills.
Wright considers that pictures have at least five roles in speaking and writing. Those roles are presented below:
1. Pictures can motivate the student and make him or her want to pay attention
and want to take part.
30 2.
Pictures can contribute to the context in which the language is being used. They bring the world into the classroom a street scene or a particular object,
for example, a train. 3.
The pictures can be described in an objective way „This is a train.’ or interpreted „It’s probably a local train.’ or responded to subjectively „I like
travelling by train.’. 4.
Pictures can cue responses to questions or cue substitutions through controlled practiced.
5. Pictures can stimulate and provide information to be referred to in
conversation, discussion and storytelling. Wright 1989: 188-192 also says that pictures have three functions that
can be used by the teacher. First, pictures can be used to get students’ personal response. Pictures can encourage students to have questions in their mind about
the pictures which are displayed. Second, pictures can be used to illustrate an object, action, quality, and etc. Pictures which illustrate a particular concept can
be used for the teaching of meaning. But a single picture cannot illustrate content unambiguously. It is better to use several pictures of the same object, pictures
with sequences, or pictures series to focus the students’ mind on the concept concerned. Third, pictures can be used by the students to imply an idea. Some
words and structures might be implied by a picture even though they are not specifically illustrated. The students can easily guess the content of the picture by
looking at the people, place, activity, and etc. shown in the picture. In addition, Wright 1989: 201 suggests that cartoon strips and instruction
strips of picture are very useful in teaching language, especially teaching writing skill. These series of pictures can be used to contextualize a story or a description
of a process. For intermediate students, these series of pictures can help them in representing the people in the pictures, setting and the relationship between the
picture and the words. Raimes 1983: 36 says that picture series provides a
