Creating New Words Neologism

37 Many processes are applied to build new word. Katamba 1994 and Plag 2002, suggest affixation, derivation, blending, clipping, back-formation, and borrowing are processes to form new words. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish 2010 also reveal some morphological processes which are in line with Katamba 1994 and Plag 2002. However, Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish 2010 stated some differences in the realm of word formation processes. They group English word-formation processes into four parts. They noted they are classified into neologism, derivational morphology, inflectional morphology, and changing the meaning of the words or meaning modification.

a. Creating New Words Neologism

Neologism can be concluded as processes to create new words Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer Harnish, 2010. It involves fifteen types of processes. They are coined word, acronym, alphabetic abbreviation, clipping, blends, generified word, proper nouns, borrowing, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, tone placement, cliticization, back-formation, and onomatopoeia. The procedures of neologism are described in the following parts 1 Coined Words Coining is formation of a new word which comes by inventing new vocabulary. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams 2003 reveal coining words is one of processes to broaden the vocabulary. In coining process, new word that never 38 exists previously but they keep entering the language Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer Harnish, 2010. It is born to represent things that cannot be explained by the existed words. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish 2010 give examples that coining happened in the adolescent slang like geek and dweeb. 2 Acronyms Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish 2010 define acronym as the formation of the first letter letters of a sequence of words is are used to spell a new word. Thus, it can be said as word that is created by the first letter from each word in the abbreviation. The special feature of acronym is that it can be read as one word. Acronym process is exemplified by: NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization, UNICEF The United Nation Chil dren‟s Fund, and LASER Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. 3 Alphabetic Abbreviation In alphabetic abbreviation, each letter is individually pronounced. The format looks like acronym but the first letters are pronounced separately Katamba, 1994. The letters are pronuced one by one. Alphabetic abbreviation acts like a new word. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish 2010, alphabetical abbreviation replaces the longer word into a short form. The exampling of alphabetic abbreviation is in OOT Out of the Topic and UNHCR United Nation High Commissioner for Refugee. 39 4 Clippings O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller 2010 stated, clipping is the process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllable. This idea is supported by Katamba 1994 who reveals that clipping is defined as “word-formation where a long word shortened to one or two syllables” p.184 . In this process, some syllables in the back of the word are omitted. For examples, doctor is clipped into doc and lab is the result of clipping from the word laboratory. In conclusion, clipped word is polysyllabic words which their syllables are cut. Clipping has several types. Mattiello 2008 proposes there are four variation of clipping that may be applied to English slang. They are back clipping, fore-clipping and other marginal cases of clipping, and clipped compound. Back clipping is defined as a shortening in the last syllable. This process leaves the initial syllables; for examples, fave  favorite, rehab  rehabilitation, and psycho  psychopath. The other type of clipping is fore-clipping. In this type of clipping, the first syllable is deleted; for instances, gator  alligator, stache moustache, and nam  Vietnam. Clipping can be happened in the first and the last syllable, as in the words scipt  prescription and tec  detective. Clipping does not only abbreviate the words. It is also possible to change the words spelling Mattiello, 2008. Predominantly, it happens in back-clipping. This type of clipping is exemplified by jeez geez jez Jesus and siff syphilis. 40 The last variant is clipped-compound. This type is a combination between clipping and compounding. It is made up from two bases. The clipping process occurs in one of the bases. It may happen by clipping the compound word, as in the words after  afternoon and skin  skinhead. However, compound clipping may happen by deleting the last syllable on the second base, like in the word street cred credibility. Clipped compound may be formed by clipping the second base and the last syllable from the second one, in an instance, mutt from mutton-head which means „an incompetent, a fool‟. Clipping compound is also possible to be formed by clipping the first base. For example, pike originally from turn pike denoting „a road which a toll is collected in the toll gate‟. Another pattern of clipping compound is shortened the last syllable in both bases. That formation is happened in misper missing person and slomo  slow motion. The other pattern, which is less common, is existed in B-girl  bar girl, three compound word like greycing  greyhound racing, and shouse  shit house. 5 Blends Blends are defined as vocabulary that are created from non-morphemic parts of two already existing items, usually the first part of one and the final part of the other O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff Rees-Miller, 2010. This is in line with Katamba 1994 who reveals b lend is “a word formed by joining together chunks of two pre- existing words” p.184. Two words are able to be blended into one word by unifying the syllables from each word. This happens in the word brunch which comes from breakfast and lunch. Word camcorder is another example of blends, which originally comes from camera and recorder. Moreover, 41 blends process is exemplified by fantabulous which is formed from fantastic and fabulous. 6 Generified word Generified word is a technique to create new words, namely, using specific brand names of products as names for the products in general generification Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer Harnish, 2010. In this process, some words are replaced with particular brand names, for example, google. In the past, google denoted to the well-known search engine in the internet. However, nowadays google can be used as a verb to depict „search information in the internet‟. Xerox is also one of generified word from a brand of photocopy machine which replaces a verb „to photocopy‟. 7 Proper Nouns Proper noun or eponym is defined as “ Not in frequent, a trait, quality, act or some behavior associated with a person becomes identified with that person‟s name, typically his or her last name.” Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer Harnish , 2010, p. 29. It is a process of word building which takes someone‟s name as vocabulary. Their name is taken because they represent particular quality. In an instance, guillotine, which is an instrument of execution, was named according to its inventor, Dr. Joseph Guillotin. Paparazzo plural: paparazzi that means „ a freelancer photographer doggedly pursues celebrity„, is also included as 42 eponym because it comes from Signor Paparazo, a character from a motion picture La Dolce Vita Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2011. 8 Borrowing Borrowing is a vocabulary expansion by taking words from other languages and making them as the part of language. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams 2011 call borrowing process as loan word. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish 2010, English borrows several words from another language such as Aztec, for example: chocolate, coyote, maize, taco, Mexico, and tomato. Beside from Aztec‟s language, English also borrows from Arabic such as: harem. 9 Internal change Internal change is defined as a process of substituting non-morphemic parts to show a grammatical contrast O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff Rees- Miller, 2010. A letter or a vowel is replaced with another letter to indicate grammar contrast. The examples are lied in the word draw  drew; drive drove, and drink  drunk. 10 Suppletion Suppletion is an allomorph of a word which bears no phonological resemblance with the root morpheme to indicate a grammar contrast Katamba, 1994. O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller 2010 suggest suppletion is a process of replacing a morpheme with a whole new morpheme to indicate 43 grammar contrast. English suppletion is exemplified by word better to replace good, worst to replace bad, and were or was to replace to be are or is. 11 Reduplication Katamba 1994 defines reduplication as a process of repeating the base of word in parts or in entirely. This is in line with Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams 2011 who purpose reduplication is “a morphological process that repeats or copies all or part of a word to produce a new word” p.591. According to O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller 2010, reduplication has a function to mark grammatical or semantic contrast by repeating all or part of the bases. Barbaressi reveals that English reduplication can be classified into four patterns as cited in Mattiello, 2008. She names them as ablaut, rhyming reduplicative, reduplicative rhyming compound, and copy or exact reduplicative. It is distinguish based on the parts of the words which are repeated. Ablaut means a change in the root vowel Katamba, 1994, p.54. Barbaressi calls it as apophonic as cited in Matiello, 2008, p.131. Based on Mattiello 2008, “English ablaut reduplicative may be obtained either by left- handed handy-dandy, or right-hand base dilly-dally, or have no existing base at all zig-zag, with the two vowels suggesting the two different direction” p.131. Rhyming reduplicative is a reduplicative form with an identical vowel or consonants that appear after it in the last syllable Katamba, 1994. This 44 statement is supported by Mattiello 2008 who reveals that it is a twin form consisting of two rhyming elements, one of which forms by changing its initial consonant. It may possess the first member as the base, the second member as the base, or no bases because it is merely fanciful sound cluster and without linguistics cluster Mattiello, 2008. Reduplicative rhyming compound has a different rule with rhyming reduplicative and compound words. According to Mattielo 2008, in the rhyming reduplicative, there is only one base while in reduplicative rhyming compound there are two bases. She also reveals that it is also not the same with compound words since the relations between the two bases is different with the normal compound rule and no syntactic phrase identifiable. Rhyming compound has rhyming in those two bases and each base is created from an existed word. The main characteristic to distinguish it with regular compound is that syntactic paraphrase is almost not discovered in reduplicative rhyming compound. Exact reduplicative or copy reduplicative is a reduplicative with twin bases. Mattiello 2008 states that in general, English copy reduplicative has basic constituent with the second member being exact copy. It can be formed by reduplicating the exact word no-no denoting „something unacceptable or forbidden‟, clipped word ju-ju meaning „marijuana‟, and onomatopoeia bling- bling  „ostentatious jewelry‟, representing the visual effect of light being reflected off metal or precious stone Mattiello, 2008. Aside from those four forms of reduplicative in slang, less common patterns of reduplicative words also exists Mattiello 2008 notes two marginal 45 cases. The first one is reduplicative word which exhibits linking element. It is exemplified on word ding-a-ling meaning „crazy person‟. The second one is a binomial which is excluded afore-mentioned type of reduplicative but shows a sort of internal phonic resemblance through assonance, consonance, or rhyme. That type is represented in jiggery-pockery „deceitful‟, „dishonest‟, „manipulation‟. 12 Tone Placement Tone placement is a process of placing tone or pitch that influences the meaning of the word. According to O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller 2010, tone placement occurs in the language which pitch affects the meaning of the words. The languages that applied the pitch of individual vowels or syllable to distinguish meanings of words are defined as tone languages Fromkin, Rodman Hyams, 2011. Vietnamese, Mandarin, and Thai exemplify tone languages. O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller 2010 propose that English is not atypical tone language, since pitch will not influence the word meaning. However, it is claimed as stress language because the meaning is signaled by stress. Stress placement in English is represented by record. The first syllable is stressed if it is a verb. However, it is a noun if the stress is in the first syllable. 13 Cliticization A process of attaching clitics to words is called cliticization. Katamba 1994 defines clitics as “a bound morpheme which is not an affix but which, nevertheless, occurs as part of world” p. 108. O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and 46 Rees-Miller 2010 support that idea by stating that clitics is morphemes which are alike words, but it cannot stand alone as independent word because of the phonological reason. Generally, cliticization happens in the end of the word after the word-formation rules of the lexicon have applied and following the application of syntactic rules Katamba, 1994, p.108. Clitics is classified into two types by Katamba 1994. It is divided based on the capability of standing alone as a word. The class I only has –„s. Whilst, the class II is consisted by - „m, -„re, -„s, -„ll, -d, and -„ve. The class I clitics is named Genitive –„s by Katamba 1994. This type of clitics is not able to stand alone as an independent word. It has to be attached to noun. In 1973, Quirk and Greenbaum state that Gentive –„s in English possesses several functions, namely possessive genitive, genitive of origin, and genitive of measurement written in Katamba, 1994. The use of genitive „-s and its functions are described in table 2.1 which is cited by Katamba 1994, p.109. Table 2.1: The Use and Meaning of Genitive –‘s Genitive –‘s Sentences Paraphrase Possessive genitive the farmer‟s cattle the cattle belonging the farmer the farmer‟s tractor the tractor belonging to the farmer the farmer‟s wife the wife belonging to the farmer Genitive of origin the farmer‟s messenger the messenger sent by the farmer 47 Note . From “English Words,” by Francis Katamba, 1994, p.109 The second type of clitics is able to appear as independent words when they are in the complete forms Katamba, 1994. However, they are also possible to follow other words when they are not in the full word. It is exemplified in the sentences: “We‟ll see it later” We will see it later; “They‟ve finished their work” They have finished their work, and “I‟m really mad at you right now” I am really mad at you right now. Table 2.2 describes about clitics in the auxiliary verbs. Table 2.2: Clitics of Auxiliary Verbs Auxiliary verbs Clitics Examples am - „m I‟m are - „re they‟re, we‟re is has - „s She‟s, it‟s will - „ll we‟ll, he‟ll have - „ve I‟ve had would - „d I‟d, You‟d 14 Back-Formation the f armer‟s story the story told by the farmer Genitive of measure two years‟ imprisonment imprisonment lasting for two years a day‟s journey a journey lasting one whole day. 48 Back-Formation is a process of omitting suffixes from the bases to form new vocabularies Katamba, 1994. It is in line with Bauer 1988a, p.238 who defines that back- formation is “the formation of words by the deletion of actual or supposed affixes in the longer words” cited by Mattiello, 2010, p.129. It is exemplified by esacalate from escalator, edit from editor, beg from beggar Plag, 2002 and Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish 2010. Suffix deletion in slang back-formation forms new words with new lexical category. Verbs can be created by back-forming nouns Mattiello, 2008. Furthermore, Mattiello 2008 reveals nouns are built through deleting the suffix in adjective. It is exemplified by pea-brain from pea-brained, Yid from Yiddis, and dill from dilly Mattiello, 2008 15 Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is a word-building process that uses sound symbolism to build new word. The words enter the language by using the sound imitation which is associated with the object or activity they refer to Fromkin, Rodman, Hyams, 2011. Their idea is supported by Katamba 1994. He states that in onomatopoeia, t he sounds reflect some aspects of the meaning of the words that are represented. Onomatopoeic slang words are exemplified by the squits, which means „a case of diarrhea‟, and jink , which express the idea of nimble motion Thorne, 2007; Ayto, 1998

b. Changing the Meaning of the Words or Meaning Modification