The Nature of Speaking The Principles for Teaching Speaking

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description

This chapter presents some meaningful reviews from many sources to help develop the writing process of the thesis and dealing with the study conducted. First, this chapter will include, speaking, collaborative, evaluation, the review of instructional design, and students’ characteristic. Second it will deal with the theoretical framework of the study.

1. Speaking

a. The Nature of Speaking

Speaking is a fundamental human behavior that could not be stopped analyzing unless there is something noticeable about it. According to Savignon 1991, “we often talk about the four skills in language teaching.” They are speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Language generated by the learner in speech or writing is productive, and language directed at the learner in reading or listening is receptive. Modality refers to the medium of the message auraloral or written. In addition, Savignon also added that speaking is the productive auraloral skill and consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning. Another researcher, Florez 1999: 1 stated that “speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information.” 11 “Spoken language and written language differ in many important ways” van Lier, 1995. Spoken language is received auditorially, whereas written language is received visually. As a result, the spoken message is temporary and its reception by the learner is usually immediate. In contrast, written language is permanent, and reception by the learner typically occurs some time after the text was generated sometimes even centuries later.

b. The Principles for Teaching Speaking

The Indonesian Government Law number 19 year 2005 stated that there should be a special program called an internally studied subject or Muatan Lokal implemented in all Senior High School in Indonesia. According to the Indonesian Government Law number 19 year 2005, “the twelfth grade students of every Senior High School in Indonesia are taught by using English for active communication.” In addition, teachers realize that developing English skill particularly in the speaking skill at least can help students to get along in the society since English becomes a Universal language nowadays. Furthermore, since the twelfth graders of senior high school are categorized as intermediate learners, the writer will consider the techniques for teaching speaking to intermediate learners. As stated by Bailey 2005: 90, The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language ACTFL enumerates the guidelines list of intermediate students’ speaking ability characteristics. 12 The following five guideline lists are as follows. 1. Students are able to ask and answer questions and participate in simple conversations on topics beyond the most immediate needs, such as personal history and leisure time activities 2. Students are able to improve pronunciation, which may continue to be strongly influenced by the first language, and fluency may still be strained. 3. Students are able to handle successfully a variety of uncomplicated, basic and communicative tasks and social situations 4. Students are able to talk simply about self and family members 5. Students are able to increase utterance length slightly, but speech may continue to be characterized by frequent long pauses, since the smooth incorporation of even basics conversational strategies is often hindered. According to Bailey 2005: 96-98, there are three principles in teaching speaking to intermediate students. 1 Planning speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning It appears that through the process of negotiating for the meaning, the language addressed and adjusted to the students. Further, students become comprehensible to the language. Students need to work hard to make the language understandable either in speech or writing. The students must attend to accuracy and fluency. They must select the correct vocabulary, apply grammar rules, and pronounce words carefully. 13 To support the first principles, Schimidt and Frota 1986: 310-315 argued that Students may notice the gap between what they want to say and what they can say, or between what they say and what other people say. In line with Schimidt and Frota viewpoint, Bailey 2005: 97 added that by planning speaking tasks that require students to negotiate for meaning, teachers can give students valuable chance for practice and language development particularly for students in the intermediate level. 2 Designing both transactional and interpersonal speaking activities When people talk to other people, they usually do so for interpersonal or transactional purposes. Interpersonal speech is communication for social purposes, including establishing or maintaining social relationships. Transactional speech involves communicating to get something done, for example the exchange of goods andor services. According to Nunan 1991:42 as stated in Bailey 2005:97, “most spoken interactions can be placed on a continuum from relatively predictable to relatively unpredictable.” Casual conversations-an example of interpersonal speech are relatively unpredictable and can range over many topics, with the participation of students taking turns and commenting freely. In contrast, Nunan says that transactional encounters of a fairly restricted kind will usually contain highly predictable patterns Bailey, 2005:97. 3 Personalizing the content of speaking activities whenever possible 14 Personalization is the process of making activities matches the students’ own circumstances, interests, and goals. Omagio 1982 as cited in Bailey 2005: 97 states that “teachers who personalized language lessons were judged to be effective, by both their supervisor and their students.” Personalizing exercise can be as simple as using students’ names, academic majors, cities, or jobs in speaking activities. Or teachers can ask the students to build role plays around situations suggested by the students. In addition, Bailey 2005:97 adds that “personalizing language lessons is partly a matter of careful planning and partly of responding creatively to students’ questions and comments during activities.”

c. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance