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which take place in a particular situation, in time. The last aspect is the utterance as a product of verbal act deals with language at a more concrete level than
grammar. With regard to this utterances may refer to the product of a verbal art, rather than to the verbal acts itself. The words ‘Would you be quite please?’
spoken with a polite rising intonation, might be described as a sentence, or as a question, or as a request. However, it is convenient to reserve term like sentence
and question for grammatical entities, identified by their use in a particular situation. In this sense, utterances are the element whose meanings are studied in
discourse analysis. In fact, it can be described that discourse analysis deals with utterances in relation to the context.
3. The Scope of Pragmatics
Pragmatics, as a branch of linguistics, has many scopes, i.e. deixis, presupposition, cooperative principle, implicature, and speech act Yule, 1996.
Since this research belongs to pragmatics study, this scope will be elaborated in more detail.
a. Deixis
One of the ways to resolve the relationship between language and context is utilizing the phenomenon of deixis. According to Levinson 1983, deixis
deals with the way in which a language encodes or grammaticalizes features of the contexts of utterance of a speech event. With regard to this, deixis also
concerns with ways in which the interpretation of utterances depends on the analysis of the context of those utterances.
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Another definition of deixis is presented by Yule 1996. According to him, deixis is a technical term from Greek for one of the most basic things
people do with utterances. In other words, deixis means ‘pointing’ via language.
He divides deixis into three categories: 1 Person Deixis
Person deixis functions to point people. The examples of person deixis consist of the pronouns for first person I, second person you, and third person he,
she, or it. In many languages, these deictic categories of speaker, addressee, and others are elaborated with makers of relative social status for instance, addressee
with higher status versus addressee with lower status.The expressions which indicate higher status are described as honorifics. In other words, person deixis is
deictic expressions that indicate people, for example the distinction between the speaker I and the addressee you. It is divided into three parts, i.e. the pronouns for
the first person I, second person you, and third person he, she, or it. However, it is not easy to learn these deictic expressions. It requires a very close observation on
what is actually happening in a conversation shift. Some languages use deictic expressions to show the social status between
the speaker and addressee. This is often called social deixis. For example, in French, the word
‘tu‘ is said by the speakers who have higher social status and older speakers to a lower and younger addressee. On the contrary,
‘vous‘ is spoken by lower and younger speakers to a higher and older addressee. In English,
the use of third person pronouns is the common form to create distance or non- familiarity for example Would his majesty like some fried onions?. The example
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shows an ironic or humorous case in which one person is very busy cleaning the kitchen while another person at the same place may be reluctant to see the kitchen.
In summary, person deixis deals with how people address themselves as a speaker and be addressed in return. It covers with the needs of people to make distance or
to be closer with. 2 Spatial Deixis
Spatial deixis functions to point location. In other words, spatial deixis deals with deictic expressions that indicate the location of people and things. The
words that show deictic expressions include here, this, that, and there. Moreover, some motion verbs
such as “come” and ”go” may perform deictic expressions for example
“Come to the living room‘ or ‘Go to the library‘. The words “come” and
”go” in those sentences are used to mark movement towards or away from the speakers.
People must be familiar with how the definition of location in each speaker‘s point of view is mentally and physically different. It is often called as a
deictic projection since speakers may project themselves into expected locations, even when the location is manipulated due to the existence of technology for
example ‘I am not here now‘. If the sentence is projected to the answering
m achine of someone‘s telephone, the word ‘now‘will do at any time someone tries
to call the telephone not to when someone records the words. A similar deictic projection is also used in a direct speech to represent the
person, location, and someone ’s feelings or something else for example ‘I was
after my cute little kitty to be more taken care because she is dirty’. She always
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looks like ‘Here, clean me up, will you?‘. The word ‘here‘in that sentence does
not literally mean physical location of the speaker but it means the person in the role of being the cute little kitty. If the speaker and the addressee have been so
close physically, they will tend to behave the same way psychologically. It is a different treatment when a person is not close enough both physically and
psychologically, that person may say ‘that woman over there‘.
In summary, spatial deixis deals with how people project the location of people or things indicated. Using
the words ‘here‘, ‘there‘, ‘this‘, ‘that‘, and many more may have different meanings depending on who is speaking, when to speak,
and how the speaker and addressee are physically and psychologically connected. 3 Temporal Deixis
Temporal deixis functions to point the time. This includes time adverbs such as yesterday, now, then, tomorrow, soon, and forth, and also different tenses.
Speakers know how to use this knowledge when they listen and read, when they speak and write or when they communicate. With regard to this, People need to
consider what kind of knowledge a person must have and use in certain acts of communication. In other words, temporal deixis deals with deictic expressions
that indicate the time coinciding with the speaker‘s utterance and the time of the
speaker‘s voice being heard. There are many words showing temporal deixis and they may be interpreted differently based on how and when the utterances are said
for instance the use of ‘then‘. The word ‘then‘ may be applied to both past and
future time and depend on the speaker‘s presence as presented in the following
sentences. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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a I was smart and diligent then. b I will come to your party then.
Temporal deixis makes ultimate reference to participant-role. Moreover, the expressions depend on the interpretation known by the relevant utterance time
for example the expression ‘be back in an hour‘ which is written on an office
door. There will be a possibility for others not to know how long or how short the person will come back.
In reference to the psychological basis, temporal deixis look similar with spatial deixis. The projection can be treated to be near or far away from the
speakers like in some English expressions the past two years, the approaching month, the coming year, this Monday morning, etc. Moreover, some types of
English temporal deixis are not widely recognized. One of the examples is related to the choice of verb tense as presented in the sentences below.
a I work here now. b I worked there then.
The present tense in the sentence I work here now indicates the use of proximal forms or the words used to present the near speaker. Meanwhile, the past
tense in the sentence I worked there then indicates the opposite. In conclusion, temporal deixis explains the presence of time. It describes
the proximal and the distal form. The proximal form is the near speaker function as indicated by the use of
‘now‘ and‘this‘. Meanwhile, the distal form is used as the away speaker function as to communicate distance from current time and
distance from current reality. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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b. Presupposition
