Stop deletion in orthographical consonant clusters of English words.

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ABSTRACT

Sanita, Joan. 2015. Stop Deletion in Orthographical Consonant Clusters of English Words. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

This thesis focuses on the phonological study and library research dealing with stop deletion in orthographical consonant clusters of English words. The source for this study is Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (LPD), 2nd_edition, published in 2000 both hard copy and soft copy. The data in this research are 581 words of English containing the deletion of /b/, /d/, /g/, /p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, and /n/ from letters A to Z. From the highest number to the lowest frequency, the 567 words consist of 136 words of the stop /g/ deletion, 116 words of the stop /p/ deletion, 112 words of the stop /b/ deletion, 99 words of the stop /k/ deletion, 86 words of the stop /t/ deletion, 16 words of the stop /d/ deletion, 9 words of the stop /n/ deletion, and 2 words of the stop /m/ deletion.

This study attempts to answer three research questions. They are 1) What types of stop deletion are found in English? 2) What are the phonological rules of stop deletion are found in English? 3) What non-phonological factors may affect occurrence of stop deletion in English?

The analysis then yields some findings. The first finding is on the types of stop deletion that are observed in English. With regard to the characteristics of each deletion, the types of deletion can be divided into three: permanent deletion (485 words), non-permanent deletion (61 words), and variety-dependent deletion (37 words).

The second finding reveals the phonological rules that are applied in the stop deletion. In this study, there are fifteen phonological rules for the eight stop deletions based on the permanent and non-permanent deletions. They are the stop /b/ deletion (two rules), the stop /d/ deletion (two rules), the stop /g/ deletion (two rules), the stop /p/ deletion (two rules), the stop /t/ deletion (two rules), the stop /k/ deletion (one rule), the stop /m/ deletion (one rule), and the stop /n/ deletion (one rule).

Meanwhile, the third finding implies that there are at least two factors besides phonology that might affect the occurrence of stop deletion. They are the historical factor (different source of languages, the case of borrowing, general agreement) and economical factor.

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ABSTRAK

Sanita, Joan. 2015. Stop Deletion in Orthographical Consonant Clusters of English Words. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Tesis ini berfokus pada studi fonologi dan studi pustaka (studi sejarah) terkait dengan fenomena pelesapan hentian (stop deletion) didalam padanan konsonan secara ortografi di Bahasa Inggris. Studi ini menggunakan Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (LPD) dalam bentuk buku dan program komputer, edisi kedua, terbitan 2000 sebagai sumber utama dalam pencarian data. Data dalam penelitian ini adalah 581 kata bahasa Inggris berisi pelesapan hentian (stop deletion) pada /b/, /d/, /g/, /p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, dan /n/ dari mulai abjad A sampai Z. Diurutukan dari yang tertinggi sampai terendah, kelima ratus tujuh puluh enam kata ini terdiri dari 136 kata berisi pelesapan hentian /g/, 116 kata yang mengandung pelesapan hentian /p/, 112 kata yang memiliki pelesapan hentian /b/, 99 kata berisi pelesapan hentian /k/, 86 kata mengandung pelesapan hentian /t/, 16 kata yang mempunyai pelesapan hentian /d/, 9 kata dari pelesapan hentian /n/, dan 2 kata berisi pelesapan hentian /m/.

Studi ini mencoba menjawab tiga pertanyaan penelitian, diantaranya adalah 1) Apa saja tipe dari pelesapan hentian yang ada di dalam bahasa Inggris? 2) Apa saja aturan fonologi untuk pelesapan hentian yang ditemukan di dalam pa saja Bahasa Inggris? 3) Apa faktor non-fonologi yang bisa memengaruhi terjadinya pelesapan hentian di dalam Bahasa Inggris?

Analisa ini kemudian menghasilkan beberapa temuan. Temuan pertama adalah tipe atau jenis dari pelesapan hentian yang ada dalam kata Bahasa Inggris. Sesuai dengan karakteristinya, jenis dari pelesapan hentian ini dapat dibagi kedalam tiga jenis yaitu pelesapan permanen (permanent deletion) sebanyak 485 kata, pelesapan non-permanen (non-permanent deletion) sebanyak 61 kata, dan pelesapan variasi-regional (variety-dependent deletion) sebanyak 37 kata.

Temuan kedua adalah aturan fonologi yang berlaku di dalam pelesapan hentian. Dalam studi ini ditemukan lima belas aturan fonologi yang dirumuskan dari delapan pelesapan hentian berdasarkan jenis permanen dan non-permanen pelesapan. Aturan ini terdiri dari dua aturna untuk pelesapan /b/, dua aturan untuk pelesapan /t/, dua aturan untuk pelesapan /g/, dua aturan untuk pelesapan /p/, dua aturan untuk pelesapan /t/, satu aturan untuk pelesapan /k/, satu aturan untuk pelesapan /m/, dan satu aturan untuk pelesapan /n/.

Selanjutnya, temuan ketiga adalah terkait faktor yang mempengaruhi terjadinya pelesapan hentian selain faktor fonologi. Berdasarkan studi pustaka ditemukan bahwa setidaknya ada dua faktor lain yang mengakibatkan terjadinya pelesapan hentian di dalam Bahasa Inggris. Pertama adalah faktos historis yaitu terkait dengan perbedaan sumber bahasa, bahasa serapan, dan kesepakatan yang berlaku secara umum. Kedua adalah faktor keekonomisan terkait dengan pengucapan.

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STOP DELETION IN ORTHOGRAPHICAL CONSONANT CLUSTERS OF ENGLISH WORDS

TITLE PAGE

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree

in English Language Studies

by Joan Sanita

Student Number: 136332005

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2015

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ii A THESIS

STOP DELETION IN ORTHOGRAPHICAL CONSONANT CLUSTERS OF ENGLISH WORDS

by Joan Sanita

Student Number: 136332005

APPROVAL PAGE

Approved by

Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. _______________________ Thesis Advisor Yogyakarta, 1 June 2015

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iii A THESIS

STOP DELETION IN ORTHOGRAPHICAL CONSONANT CLUSTERS OF ENGLISH WORDS

Presented by

Joan Sanita

Student Number: 136332005 DEFENCE APPROVAL PAGE Defended before the Thesis Committee

and Declared Acceptable

THESIS COMMITTEE

Chairperson : Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. ____________________

Secretary : Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. ____________________

Members : 1. Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D. ____________________

2. Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo ____________________

Yogyakarta, 12 August 2015 The Graduate Program Director Sanata Dharma University

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took

somebody else’s ideas, phrases, or sentences without a proper reference.

Yogyakarta, 1 June 2015

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan dibawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Joan Sanita

Nomor mahasiswa : 136332005

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

STOP DELETION IN ORTHOGRAPHICAL CONSONANT CLUSTERS OF ENGLISH WORDS

Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaa Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal 1 Juni 2015

Yang menyatakan

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DEDICATION

I blissfully dedicate this thesis to my beloved mother,

Mariaty Wijaya

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vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillahirabbil’alamin. All praise be to Allah SWT. It is merely because of His grace and blessing so that I can accomplish this thesis as one of the requirements to get my degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) from this university. All my effort and hard work are finished on time because of the help and assistance of all parties who have supported me. Thus, I would like to acknowledge them sincerely.

First of all, my greatest and sincerest gratitude goes to my superlative thesis advisor Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., for his incomparable solutions, guidance, knowledge, advice, understanding, opinion, favor, support, and helpful reviews. It is because of his remarkable supervision so that I always feel motivated to make my work better. I can continuously learn new things in every writing and consultation meeting. I am really grateful to be one of his students for these four semesters since there are many great time and memorable things that are genuinely useful for me, especially in understanding my study in linguistic stream.

Secondly, I would also like to thank Dr. B. B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., who has given so many efforts and reinforcement to me for finishing the study. His support and information during this time are really valuable and helpful for me in gaining experience and managing time. Therefore, I am able to finish my study on time. Then, my greatest gratitude also goes to Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo, the other grandfather of me. His caring and advice are noteworthy for me not only as a student but also as a grandchild. Likewise, I thank the other lecturers who have taught me in Sanata Dharma University. My deepest gratefulness is for F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D., Paulus Sarwoto, S.S., M.A., Ph.D., Dr. J. Haryatmoko, S.J., Mutiara Andalas, S.J., S.S., S.TD., Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph. D., and Dr. Alb. Budi Susanto, S.J., who have given their experiences, knowledge, and endeavors during my study period. It has been a very honor for me to be one of their students on this English linguistics stream on English Language Study program. I also thank the non-teaching staff members of English Language Study of Sanata Dharma University (special thanks to Mbak

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viii

Maria Adelheid Lelyana and Pak Aloysius Mulyadi) for their modesty and assistance during my study.

Last but not least, my foremost-loving thanks go to my dearest family. My parents, who always support mentally, psychologically and financially with all their prayers, love, affection, encouragement, and everything for me. My beloved brother, Mochammad Assad Fadlyan, whom I love so much despite his apathetical personality. I know that deep down inside he loves me as much as I love him. I also thank my beloved eleven-year best mate, Yuranto Eka Putra, who always cares, accompanies, and understands me in my up and down. In

addition, I thank all my ‘comrades-in-arms’ KBI friends (Bunda Wulan, Ce Vivi,

Mbak Adria, Levyn, Mbak Aik, Mas Ryan, Dewi, Mbak Yun, Mbak Di, Mbak Din, Mbak Gab, Mbak Anin, Mbak Tuti, Mbak Nurul, Desta, Mas Bayu, Bu Asti, Bu Sitta, Mbak Riettah Nita, Tia, Mbak Inta, Putri Zaskia, Mbak Mimi,

Pak Tangguh, Mbak Rina, Dita, Mbak Siwi, Ika) for the support and

encouragement during my study in Sanata Dharma University.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

DEFENCE APPROVAL PAGE ... iii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY... iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN ... v

DEDICATION... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix

LIST OF TABLES ... xii

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xiv

ABSTRACT ... xv

ABSTRAK ... xvi

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Limitation of the Study ... 6

C. Formulation of the Problems ... 8

D. Objectives of the Study ... 8

E. Benefits of the Study ... 10

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW ... 12

A. Literature Review... 12

1. Consonant Articulation ... 12

2. Stop Sounds ... 13

3. Phonological Classification of Stops in English ... 17

4. Stop Deletion ... 19

5. Phonological Rule ... 23

6. Phonological Analysis ... 24

7. Licit Consonant Clusters in English ... 25

8. Sound Muting ... 29

9. Sounds and Spellings ... 30

10. The Nature of Phonology and Orthography ... 31

11. The Relation between Orthography and Phonology ... 34

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13. List of Symbols used in this Thesis... 39

B. Related Studies ... 40

C. Theoretical Framework ... 47

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 50

A. Data of the Study and Data Source ... 50

B. Approach of the Study ... 51

C. Method of the Study ... 52

1. Data Collection ... 52

2. Data Analysis ... 55

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ... 59

A. Types of Stop Deletion ... 59

1. Permanent Deletion ... 61

2. Non-permanent Deletion ... 67

3. Variety-dependent Deletion ... 73

B. Phonological Rules of Stop Deletion ... 76

1. The Stop /b/ Deletion ... 79

2. The Stop /d/ Deletion ... 80

3. The Stop /g/ Deletion ... 81

4. The Stop /p/ Deletion ... 83

5. The Stop /t/ Deletion ... 85

6. The Stop /k/ Deletion ... 86

7. The Stop /m/ Deletion ... 87

8. The Stop /n/ Deletion ... 88

C. Non-phonological Factors ... 95

1. Historical Factor ... 95

2. Economical Factor ... 108

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS... 113

A. Conclusions ... 113

B. Suggestions ... 118

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 120

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APPENDIX 1 ... 124 APPENDIX 2 ... 135 APPENDIX 3 ... 147

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xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Table 2. Table 3. Table 4. Table 5. Table 6. Table 7. Table 8 Table 9. Table 10. Table 11. Table 12. Table 13. Table 14. Table 15. Table 16. Table 17. Table 18.

English Initial Consonant Sound Clusters Contain a Stop... English Final Consonant Sound Clusters Contain Stops... Key to English Phonetic Symbols Used for This Thesis... Representative Symbols for Deletion Rule... List of Stop Deletion found for the Research... Types of Stop Deletion According to the Present Writer... Examples of Permanent Deletion in the same Derived-Words... Examples of Position of Stop Deletion in Syllable/ Morpheme Boundary... British English and American English Stop Deletion in Permanent Deletion... The Occurrence of Deletion in Non-Permanent Deletion... Influence on Syllable/ Morpheme Boundary in Non-Permanent Deletion... British English and American English Stop Deletion in Non-Permanent Deletion... Examples of Variety-Dependent Deletion on b-, d-, and

t-deletion... Examples of Variety-Dependent Deletion on g-,p-, t-, and k-deletion... The Representative Data for the Analysis of Stop Deletion... The Occurrence of Vowel Shift in g-deletion... Examples of Source of Languages on Stop Deletion in English... Distinctive Features of Consonants Counterpart in Table 17...

27 28 39 40 55 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 77 94 98 100

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xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Appendix 2. Appendix 3.

List of Stop Deletion According to Oro-Nasal Process and Voicing Status ... List of Stop Deletion According to the Types... Stop Deletion According to Positions in the Word...

124 135 147

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xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1. BrE : British English

2. AmE : American English

3. GenAm : General American

4. LPD : Longman Pronunciation Dictionary

5. OE : Old English

6. ME : Middle English

7. EModE : Early Modern English 8. FCC : Final Consonant Cluster

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xv ABSTRACT

Sanita, Joan. 2015. Stop Deletion in Orthographical Consonant Clusters of English Words. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

This thesis focuses on the phonological study and library research dealing with stop deletion in orthographical consonant clusters of English words. The source for this study is Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (LPD), 2nd edition, published in 2000 both hard copy and soft copy. The data in this research are 581 words of English containing the deletion of /b/, /d/, /g/, /p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, and /n/ from letters A to Z. From the highest number to the lowest frequency, the 567 words consist of 136 words of the stop /g/ deletion, 116 words of the stop /p/ deletion, 112 words of the stop /b/ deletion, 99 words of the stop /k/ deletion, 86 words of the stop /t/ deletion, 16 words of the stop /d/ deletion, 9 words of the stop /n/ deletion, and 2 words of the stop /m/ deletion.

This study attempts to answer three research questions. They are 1) What types of stop deletion are found in English? 2) What are the phonological rules of stop deletion are found in English? 3) What non-phonological factors may affect occurrence of stop deletion in English?

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xvi ABSTRAK

Sanita, Joan. 2015. Stop Deletion in Orthographical Consonant Clusters of English Words. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Tesis ini berfokus pada studi fonologi dan studi pustaka (studi sejarah) terkait dengan fenomena pelesapan hentian (stop deletion) didalam padanan konsonan secara ortografi di Bahasa Inggris. Studi ini menggunakan Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (LPD) dalam bentuk buku dan program komputer, edisi kedua, terbitan 2000 sebagai sumber utama dalam pencarian data. Data dalam penelitian ini adalah 581 kata bahasa Inggris berisi pelesapan hentian (stop deletion) pada /b/, /d/, /g/, /p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, dan /n/ dari mulai abjad A sampai Z. Diurutukan dari yang tertinggi sampai terendah, kelima ratus tujuh puluh enam kata ini terdiri dari 136 kata berisi pelesapan hentian /g/, 116 kata yang mengandung pelesapan hentian /p/, 112 kata yang memiliki pelesapan hentian /b/, 99 kata berisi pelesapan hentian /k/, 86 kata mengandung pelesapan hentian /t/, 16 kata yang mempunyai pelesapan hentian /d/, 9 kata dari pelesapan hentian /n/, dan 2 kata berisi pelesapan hentian /m/.

Studi ini mencoba menjawab tiga pertanyaan penelitian, diantaranya adalah 1) Apa saja tipe dari pelesapan hentian yang ada di dalam bahasa Inggris? 2) Apa saja aturan fonologi untuk pelesapan hentian yang ditemukan di dalam pa saja Bahasa Inggris? 3) Apa faktor non-fonologi yang bisa memengaruhi terjadinya pelesapan hentian di dalam Bahasa Inggris?

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the introduction of the study which is divided into five sections. The first section is background that provides the basis of the topic of the study. The second is limitation of the study that sets the constraint of the writer in limiting the problems of the study. The third part is formulation of the problems that notes the questions of the study. The fourth part is the objectives of the study that exemplify purpose of the research in line with the research questions. Lastly, the fifth part shows benefits of the study that justify the contribution of the study for the other related studies and for the readers.

A.Background of the Study

English has been used as an important means of communication among countries. The fact that English has a role as an International language makes English become important to be learnt by people. It is used necessarily in particular business, trade, tourism, and educational setting. Furthermore, when meeting native speakers, we are required to master English as good as possible, especially on its pronunciation. Our pronunciation will directly and indirectly represents our ability in denoting the target language. The better we can perform the language, the better we can confirm our competence to others.

The problem is that, relating the spoken form to its written form, English is one of the languages which typically has different phonetic realization compared to its orthography (Jones, 1989: 9). At this point, English is characterized with a cosmopolitan vocabulary where the vocabulary is mixed with words from other

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various languages (Baugh and Cable, 2002: 11). Based on the historical review, English vocabulary nowadays is shaped from Old English, Latin, Greek, French, and some other borrowed languages. Hence, English has wide variation of speech and also its pronunciation system. The spoken forms of word can be different even though their written forms are similar or homographically the same. For example, the pronunciation of wind as a noun (/w nd/) and wind as a verb (/wa nd/) or different pronunciations among thou /ðaʊ/, though / ðoʊ/, tough /tʌf/, thought /θɔːt /, taught /tɔːt/, and thorough /ˈθʌr ə/ that usually misspelled. It makes English pronunciation cannot be simply done by predicting only. It also needs the knowledge of the pronunciation from dictionaries or native speakers of English.

In its spoken form, English has so many words in which the pronunciation system is not typically the same as its written spelling. Thus, it can be claimed that English spelling is not completely phonetic, or more specifically, phonemic (Womack, 1957: 386). As a consequence, non-native speakers are usually mistaken in guessing the orthographical form from its pronunciation and vice versa. The thing is that, producing English words is not simply talking. There are many factors which influence its pronunciation as well as its spelling. This can be affected by the language orthography, spelling conventions, phonological rule, and historical background of English (sound changes, loan words, spelling system).

The problem of sounds and letters is one of the cases related to different phonetic realization compared to its orthography that will be the focus of this study. That is how those influences of the written form will affect the way of pronouncing the word. The authentic example can be taken from Crystal’s

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observation (1998: 37) on the language play by the so-called ‘amateurs’ (people who have not had any formal training). In the rehearsal, they will tend to pronounce the word as it is written. For example, they will pronounce knife as ‘kuh-nif-ee’, scissors as ‘ski-ssors’, knitting as ‘kuh-nitting’, gnome as ‘guh

-nom-ee’ and others. This occurrence straightens the importance of comprehending both

sounds and spellings. It can be seen that the relation between sounds and spelling cannot be neglected. That is, if they only know the pronunciation, they will encounter difficulties when writing and if they only rely on the spelling, they will find obstacles in pronouncing. Hence, English sounds continuously take a special attention in dealing with their spellings.

As stated before, sound muting and letter silencing are problems that usually need special attention. Furthermore, in dealing with English as a global language (Crystal, 2003: 3), these problems become more serious for non-native speakers. That is, they usually find difficulties when encountering the matters of letter silencing. In more explicit way, they have problems with the matter of deletion. That is, the letter which is there but it is not pronounced. The instances are the words sign /sa n/ and knee /niː/. The /g/ and /k/ are there but they are not uttered.

Besides, when the letter is completely mute, it is totally silenced in all other derived words. The instances are the words bomb /b m/ and bombing /ˈb m ŋ/, know /nəʊ/ and knowledge /ˈn l dʒ/, listen /ˈls ən/ and listener /ˈls ən‿ə/, doubt /daʊt/ and doubtful /ˈdaʊt fəl/. The other instances are in the words psalm /s ːm/, pneumonia /nju ˈməʊn i‿ə/, and gnat /næt/. In this extent, the stops /b/, /k/, /t/, /p/, and /g/ never appear at all. It is because of the matter of orthography. In other

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words, we need historical explanation to account for this stop deletion in orthographical consonant clusters.

In line with those matters, the distinct concept of consonant clusters in the pronunciation and the orthography also emerges the problem of the English pronunciation for non-native speakers. For example, in the word foreign, the <gn> in terms of the spelling (orthography) is classified as a consonant cluster. However, in terms of spoken form (phonology), there is no such a consonant cluster observed in talking /ˈf rən/ since /g/ is deleted in the pronunciation.

Consequently, this matter can generate a problem for the speakers in determining what to speak, especially related to sounds. As a consequence, they are usually confused when coping with these types of word. For example, they do not know in what extent that the sound /g/ can be pronounced as in the word sign /sa n/ and signal /ˈs ɡnəl/. This occurrence can cause problems dealing with pronouncing words (spoken form) and also putting letters in writing (written form). That is, the students become bewildered when learning English sounds because they will find difficulties in realizing that the spoken form in English is hardly the same as its written form and vice versa. In this extent, it is essential to seek the explanation from the point of view of phonology,

Stop deletion (such as the word sign, gnome, knee, knife, and knitting) in English is significant to be observed in terms of its word spelling and pronunciation linkage. The words are necessary to be studied in order to see the terms and condition as the sound is deleted. Besides, there are so many words in English which contain stop deletion. Stop deletion is one of the features in English that requires special attention in line with pronunciation. In this point, stop

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deletion is one of the deletions that mostly occur in English words. In addition, there is a need to seek the historical explanation to identify the system of orthography in synchronic or diachronic phonology. That is, whether the occurrence of sound deletion is related to particular diachronic events (e.g. sound changes in different time) (Goldsmith et al., 2011: 320). The sound may have existed in the past but has disappeared in some words (at the point of time) or the letter is actually there merely because of the orthographical matter and spelling convention (in case of borrowing: retaining the orthographical form or taking the written form as it is).

This study, then, explores stop deletion that occurs in the consonant clusters of English orthography. That is, those words whose spelling (orthographical) representations contain a consonant cluster with stop oral stops (/p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/) or nasal stops (/m/, /n/). The examples are the words paradigm

/ˈpærəda m/, design /diˈzan/ and malign /məˈla n/. In this case, /g/ is mute or not

pronounced. Nevertheless, /g/ may appear on the other derived words like and paradigmatic /ˌpær ə dɡ ˈmæt k/, designate /ˈdez ɡne t/ and malignancy /məˈlɡnəntsi/. These occurrences often make people confused. That is, in what extent that these phonological phenomena may or may not happen. In this case, we need phonological explanations that can clarify the rule for this deletion.

For this research, the stop deletion is observed in the words taken from Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (Wells, 2000) both soft copy and hard copy. The concerns are to notice the existence of stop deletion and to recognize the occurrence of stop deletion in English. In this sense, the researcher attempts to distinguish between the types of stop deletion in English, identify its

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characteristics and also tries to identify the possible rules for the deletion. In addition, the historical review is counted to confirm the influence of the language change to the spelling reform and representation.

B.Limitation of the Study

In studying deletion, it is believed that there will be various topics and issues related to this discussion, arguing that deletion is relatively important in order to comprehend English, especially in the connection between the spoken form and the written form. Nevertheless, it is impossible for the writer to discuss them all in this point. Hence, to make this thesis to be more specialized and identifiable, some limitations will be made as followss.

Firstly, deletion that will be observed for this study is the case of stop deletion that is presented in the pronunciation of the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. That is, deletion which takes place in stops (/p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/, /m/, and /n/). In this sense, the letter is assumed as the representation of the sound muting or the letter silencing. Thus, it can be stated that one letter represents one sound in the deletion.

Additionally, the /ŋ/ will not be included in this study since the discussion for that will not representative enough for the stop deletion. Also, even though /ŋ/ is considered as one sound in terms of sound classification but in the extent of the spelling, it can be argued that there is no such deletion representated in English orthography. It is because the /ŋ/ itself already has restricted condition in. That is, it can only occur at the end of the syllable (after a vowel) and it never happens in the beginning of English words (Giegerich, 1992: 33). In this extent, it can be

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argued that /ŋ/ is a marked phoneme in English especially when dealing with the spelling representation of the phoneme.

Secondly, deletion that will be observed here is deletion which occurs in the consonant clusters. In other words, it is the stop which is deleted in the consonant cluster whether it is in the initial, intermediate, or final position of a word. For instance, the /p/ is deleted in the consonant clusters of the word psychology, the

/b/ is deleted in the clusters of the word subtle, and the /g/ is deleted in the sound clusters of the word assign. In addition, if there is more than one consonant in the clusters which are deleted, they will not be observed for this study. The examples are the words Blanc /bl /, debutant /ˈdebjut /, and denouement /deˈnuːm / where the cluster <nc> and <nt> are completely silent will not be included in this study.

Likewise, the third limitation is for the discussion for variant-dependent deletion, like in the words often, grandma, and Wednesday. That is, they are only made in terms of explanation and focused on the matter of the sound, not in the further discussion of the dialects or regions of the language. Since it focuses more on the phonology in the matter of the deletion, this discussion is limited to the argument of the types of deletion that include the variety-dependence as a part of the deletion.

The fourth limitation is constructed for answering the research question number three that is the non phonological factors might affect the occurrence of stop deletion in English. Since this study focuses more on the phonological study, hence, the answer to this research question is limited on the discussion of revealing the non-phonological factors themselves as a point of discussion. It is

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like the outline of the major factors besides the phonological factors as a whole, not as a part of the analysis. Nonetheless, the examples are still provided to clarify the explanation for the factors that has been reviewed.

C.Formulation of the Problems

This research discusses the stop deletion in English based on Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. With regard to the background of the study stated previously, this study addresses the following questions:

1. What types of stop deletion are found in English orthographical consonant clusters?

2. What are the phonological rules of stop deletion in English words?

3. What non-phonological factors might affect the occurrence of stop deletion in English?

D.Objectives of the Study

This study concentrates on the analysis of stop deletion in English of Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2000). It is signified as marked aspects that occur frequently in phonological occurrence which can be observed from the linguistic point of view. In reference to the problem formulated previously, this study has the three main goals to be achieved concerning the aspects of stop deletion in English. In this sense, it is associated closely with the relation of sounds in representation of the spelling form.

Firstly, this study aims to identify the characteristics of stop deletion in English words as shown in Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. In this sense, the characteristics are in terms of the recognition of stops in English, the occurrence

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of the deletion, and the frequency of the deletion. The recognition of the stop sounds in English is in accordance with its consonant graphemes which represent the phonemes in a word. Meanwhile, the occurrence of the deletion is related to its distribution of the deletion in particular sound or letter. Last, the frequency of the deletion is the estimation of the degree on consistency in coping with the sound muting that occurs in English.

Secondly, this study aims to find out the rules that applied in stop deletion in English. In this sense, the discussion of relations between letters and sounds is significant to explain the difference between the two. Moreover, it is necessary to observe the phonological change that may occur in certain words. The classification of rules in phonology is essential in determining the occurrence of stop deletion in English. It is also referential to know what stops can be deleted or omitted in pronunciation. In this extent, the classification is identified from its differences in the words compared to its lexical derivation. It is done to identify which stops represent the deletion and what deletion can occur in that stop sounds.

Thirdly, another aim of this study is to uncover any possible reasons or motives of the occurrence of stop deletion in English besides phonology as the main factor. In this state, it is the other point of views that can be accounted for the phenomenon of stop deletion that occurs in English. Hence, any possible factors deal with phonological adjustment, historical review or conventions in English will be reviewed to achieve the contended explanation. The objective is to recognize further the relationships between the orthography to the pronunciation of English sounds in terms of stop deletion. In this case, the view of historical analysis can be taken as the basis for phonological analysis dealing with the

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second problem formulation. That is to identify the phonological rules as well as to predict the occurrence of stop deletion in English.

E.Benefits of the Study

This study expectantly will give the benefits for the applicants theoretically and practically. Theoretically, it is expected that this research may give a contribution to English language studies, especially concerning to pronunciation and phonological study to the discussion of stop deletion. That is, this study will give a contribution in recognizing stop deletion that occurs in English words. As for the theoretical benefits, this research is useful for refining the relations of sounds, the phonological rules for stop deletion, the influences to their derived-words, and their impact to English pronunciation. Moreover, it is valuable in clarifying the historical explanation that may contribute to the occurrence of this deletion in English. It may give further explanations to the appearance of stop deletion in English so that the applicants may not be confounded with the letter silencing and sound muting occurred in English. In this point, the occurrence of stop deletion may happen in synchronic and diachronic points.

Practically, this study will give benefits for those who deal with language in particular. They are English Department students, researchers, English lecturers or teachers and as well as the English students. The results of this study are expected to give them a practical pronunciation guide in dealing with stop deletion. That is, the result can raise awareness of the pronunciation practices of the language users. In other words, it is hoped that they can improve their English better by recognizing the occurrence of stop deletion in English. It is also expected that they can enhance their sensitivity dealing with silent sounds or letters in English. That

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is, they can make use of their predictions better while coping with stop deletion in English words. Moreover, it is hoped that the study will enrich the language users’ skills, especially in listening, speaking, and writing skills. They will be capable of recognizing the occurrence of stop deletion (while listening) and then they can relate its impact to the productive skills (speaking and writing). For the lecturers or teachers, this study is expected to give further sight and understanding of how to deal with stop deletion in English as well as of how to give more comprehensive learning to the students. For the students, it is expected that they will be familiar with stop deletion (in terms of letter silencing and sound muting) and they can pronounce the words correctly.

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

This chapter provides literature review, related studies, and theoretical framework of the study. The first section provides the relevant theories that are needed in relation to the topic discussion. Meanwhile, the second section presents the relevant studies that are related to the discussion of the topic. The third section discusses how the determination of the assumptions is used in correspond to the theories or concepts of the study.

A.Literature Review

This section consists of thirteen points of discussions related to the topic of the study. They are consonant articulation, stop sounds, phonological classification of stops in English, stop deletion, phonological rule, phonological analysis, licit consonant clusters in English, sound muting, sounds and spellings, the nature of phonology and orthography, the relation between orthography and spoken language, lexical borrowing, and the list of phonetic symbols used for this thesis.

1. Consonant Articulation

Consonant articulation deals with speech organ when particular sound is produced. Speech sounds are set by physical organs (i.e. vocal chords, the tongue, teeth, lips, palate). Through the move of these speech organs, the sounds are articulated. The distinction of a variety of speech sounds is produced through mouth and this process is the so-called articulation (Giegerich, 1992: 6-7). The

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articulation of different sounds will affect the product of the speech in a word-utterance.

In consonant articulation, the modification of sounds can be differentiated into its places of articulation and manners of articulation (Aitchison, 2003: 246-245). In places of articulation, the articulators are in contact (or at their closest) to the other part of articulators to produced speech sounds. They are divided mainly into labials, labiodentals, dentals, alveolars, palatals, velars, and glottal. Meanwhile, in manners of articulation, the different ways of positioning the lips, tongue, velum, and glottis are applied to produce different sound types. They can be classified into four major types, namely stops, fricatives, affricates and approximants.

Furthermore, the interaction of sounds in the articulation may involve generate different processes. They can be differentiated into deletion, epenthesis (liaison), and assimilation. This process has an impact to sound changes, or more

specifically, phonetically conditioned change (O’Grady et al., 2005: 249;

Campbell, 2004: 33). This occurrence is usually related to the articulatory simplification of the word and homorganic assimilation.

2. Stop Sounds

Stop is one of the articulatory phonetics in terms of manners of articulation. To review a bit, there are dissimilarities in labeling the category of manners of articulation. Thus, to make it more comprehensible in gathering the perceptions of this case as well as to reveal the writer’s standpoint, the review of classification of manners of articulation, especially stops, will be presented accordingly.

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Ladefoged (1993: 8-12) states four basic manners of articulation. They are stops, fricatives, affricates, and approximants. In this sense, they are classified with regard to the ways in which articulation can be achieved. At this point, he asserts stops as a complete closure of the articulators involved. Hence, the airstream cannot come out through the mouth. Furthermore, in this state, according to the oro-nasal process, he clarifies that there are two possible types of stops. The first is oral stop and the second is nasal stop. In oral stop, there is an articulatory closure of the mouth where the soft palate is up. Henceforward, the nasal tract is blocked and the airstream will also be totally obstructed. The sounds are (/p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/). Meanwhile, in nasal stop, the air is stopped in the oral tract but the soft palate is down so that the airstream can leave through the nose. For nasal stop, the sounds are (/m/, /n/, /ŋ/).

Furthermore, Ladefoged clears up that the term ‘stop’ itself is more familiarly and almost constantly used by phoneticians to designate an oral stop while the term ‘nasal’ is more recognizably used to denote a nasal stop. Nevertheless, he enlightens that even though the term stop may be marked to the anticipation of air escaping through the mouth (oral stop) but indeed the term stop is generally used to imply a complete blockade of the airstream through both the nose (nasal stop) and the mouth (oral stop). Hence, it can be noted that the term stop is more commonly used to cover oral stop and nasal stop rather than the oral stop alone.

Likewise, Giegerich (1992: 18-26) highlights the sounds differentiation in terms of its phonation, oro-nasal, place, and manner characterization. In this point, manner of articulation is seen as the additional variable in phonetic description to

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specify what happens in the production of a given sound, and more precisely, to tell two different sounds apart (if the other characteristic is the same). In this respect, he is more likely to classify manners of articulation as mutually exclusive features and straightforward distinctions. They are contrasted to stops or continuants, sonorants, obstruents, and approximants. By this features, he comparatively pins out the combinations of as nasal stops, as oral stops, as fricatives, and as approximants. While the fifth manner, affricates, is described as an oral-stop period that is followed by a friction period. So basically, he divides the manners into four parts. He also notes that since all English nasals are stops, hence they are simply called as nasals. Likewise, he underlines that all nasal stops are voiced. Furthermore, McMahon (2002: 28-29) categorizes manners of articulation into three main manners with one subsidiary case (since the fourth case can be stated as the intermediate manner between the first two). They are stops, fricatives, approximants, and affricate. In this point of view, she identifies that the definition of a stop as the involvement of the complete, transitory obstruction in the oral cavity that also include nasal cavity. Hence, nasal sounds (or simply nasals) are included in the stops manner.

In addition, Collins and Mees (2003: 42) classify the manners of articulation into three strict possible types. They are complete closure (stops, nasals, trills, and taps), close approximation (fricatives), and open approximations (central approximants, lateral approximant). As stated before, stops and nasals together are categorized into a complete closure type. It is clarified as a nature of a restraint where it forms obstruction which blocks the airstream.

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Slightly different, Akmajian et al. (2001: 73-79) differentiate manner of articulations more numerously into six. They are stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids, and glides. In this extent, the stops are separated from nasals, while approximants are separated into liquid (/l/) and glides (/r/, /w/, /y/). Stops are defined as sounds produced when the airflow is entirely blocked during oral speech. Meanwhile, they state that nasals are the same to voiced oral stops. The difference is that, the airflow and the sound energy are directed to the nasal passages because of the velum lowering.

The other division is also provided by Clark and Yallop (1990: 82) who determine manners of articulation into seven classifications. They are stops, fricatives, approximants, nasal, and three supplementary manners that are flap, tap, and trill. At this sense, they imply stop as total constriction of the airstream and a movement to create and then release the blockage. ‘Nasal consonants’ are in one sense stops since the airflow is blocked at the oral cavity. However, since the velum is lowered to allow airflow go through the nasal cavity, therefore, nasals cannot be directly classified as stops. In this extent, they argue that nasals and stops are separate manner of articulation. Here, they define stop strictly as a sound that is produced by the construction and rapid release of a complete closure at any point in the vocal tract (from the glottis to the lips) and the velum is raised to block the air flow go through the nasal cavity.

So here the terms of stops and nasals have been reviewed according to several experts in phonetics and phonology. By reviewing all of these classifications, it can be denoted that there are two arguments dealing with the categorization of manners of articulation particularly concerning with stops and

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nasals. The first claim argues that nasals are part of stops while the second argument assumes the stops and nasals as separate manners because of the matter of the airflow execution. By this case, the writer must have a standpoint to determine what is stated as a stop. By considering all these reviews, she counts nasals as a part of stops in terms of manners of articulation.

At this point, the problem of the outflow of the airstream whether it is stopped completely in the oral cavity or it is released through the nose is favored as an alternative release. In other words, the main concern here is the complete closure or blockage of the airflow in the oral tract as a key point to the basic separation as what has been classified as a stop in manners of articulation. It is in line with the separation of sounds in terms of the oro-nasal process (raising or lowering velum as a distinguished factor in determining oral and nasal sounds). In this case, the matter of nasal stop and the oral stop is more precise to be differentiated as the distinctive feature in the oro-nasal process (the oral cavity/ the nasal cavity) rather than in the articulation process that essentially deals with the articulators in the oral cavity.

3. Phonological Classification of Stops in English

In general, stops in English can be divided mainly based on their oro-nasal process, places of articulation, and voicing status. According to their oro-nasal process, stops are classified into oral stop (plosive) and nasal stop or simply nasal (Collins and Mees, 2003: 43-44). Oral stop is the complete closure of both the oral and nasal cavities. Hence, it can be defined as the complete blockage of the airstream in the mouth. Force in the mouth will go up, the soft palate is raised (so that the airstream cannot escape through the nose) then an oral stop will be

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produced. The sounds for oral stop are /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, and /g/. Meanwhile, nasal stop is the complete closure that occurs in the oral cavities only so that the airstream go beyond the nasal cavity and a nasal stop will be formed. Here, the soft palate is downward and the airstream can escape through the nose. The sounds for nasal stop are /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/.

With regard to places of articulation, stop sounds are articulated in three places. They are in bilabials, alveolars, and velars. Firstly, bilabials are sounds that are produced by bringing both lips together. The stops for bilabials are /p/, /b/, and /m/. Secondly, alveolars are sounds that are made by the raise of the tongue to the bony tooth ridge. This bony tooth ridge is called the alveolar ridge. The stops of alveolars are /t/, /d/, and /n/. Thirdly, velars are sounds that are produced by raising the body of the tongue against the velum. There are three stops for this place including /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/.

Based on their voicing status, stops can be divided into voiceless and voiced stop. Voiceless sounds are produced when the vocal cords are apart. In the extent, the airstream is not obstructed at the glottis and it releases freely through the mouth. The sounds of voiceless stop are /p/, /t/, /k/. On the other hand, voiced sounds occur while the vocal cords are together which cause the airstream pushes its way through and causes them to vibrate. The sounds for voiced stop are /b/, /d/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ (Ladefoged, 1993: 50; Fromkin & Rodman, 1993: 187).

The differentiation between voiceless and voiced sounds is important in English because it may influence the other production of sounds which is contracted to certain sound(s). For example, there is a case of devoicing of nasals

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/hɪnt/, and blink /blɪŋk/. Likewise, there is a case of pronouncing nothing as [ˈnʌθɪŋ] or [ˈnʌθɪn]. In this case, two different nasal sounds (/n/ and /ŋ/) can vary the pronunciation of the same word. In this extent, there is a case of homorganic

stop (Ladefoged, 1993: 54. That is, two sounds which are both articulated on the same organ of speech. The examples are sudden /dn/, button /tn/, and also a case of homorganic assimilation like in open [ˈoʊpm] and bacon [ˈbeɪkŋ]. Moreover, there is an occurrence of vowel length in monosyllables (Collins and Mees, 2003: 52). That is, when vowel meets voiceless sounds, it tends to be shortened but when it meets voiceless sound, the vowel will have its full length as in the case of lit /lɪt/ and lid /lɪd/ where /t/ is voiceless and /d/ is voiced, the vowel /ɪ/ will tend to be shortened in lit and just to be normal in lid.

4. Stop Deletion

The phrase “stop deletion” is a prominent term that will be mostly discussed

in this study. Therefore, it is considered important to define and to clarify this term as a basis for comprehending the discussions of the findings. This section presents the definition as well as types of deletion that will be discussed in the analysis.

a. Definition

Stops are parts of manner of articulations. This term includes an oral stop and nasal stop. An oral stop is made between a complete closure of two articulators and a velic closure (both oral and nasal cavity). The sounds are (/p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/. Meanwhile, a nasal stop is pronounced with a complete closure

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of the oral cavity so that the airstream surpasses only through the nose. Nasals stop sounds are /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ (Ladefoged, 1993: 295 & 297).

Deletion can be described as removing or losing of sound segment. It has to do with segments in speech. It can occur in before or after another sounds. Subsequently, deletion rule deals with the decree of easing an underlying segment. It is related to three things. First is the set of segments that undertake the rule. Second is the set of segments that generate the rule and third is the change of the input segments take about by the rule (Giegerich, 1992: 287& 300; Kaye, 1989: 32).

Moreover, O’Grady et al. (1997: 55-56) state that the other name for

deletion is elision. It is a process where a sound is deleted under certain circumstances. Here, deletion may happen because of four reasons. First is because of the complexity of the sound such as in the consonant clusters of sixths

/sksθs/, and texts /teksts/ where the last two sounds are usually deleted. Second is

because of the weak status of the vowel after /p/, /t/, /k/ as in potato, tomato, and canary which are pronounced as [pˈte t oʊ], [tˈme t oʊ], and [kˈneri]. Third is because of its being a syllabic consonant as in sudden to become [sʌdņ]. Fourth is because of the rapid speech like in the word suppose [səpəʊz_{] and parade [p}ə_reɪd_] where it is usually pronounced as [spəʊz_{] and [p}ṛ_eɪd_{] in rapid speech.}

Hence, stop deletion can be defined as a process of deleting a stop sound in a pronunciation under certain condition. It is related to the deletion rule (erasing an underlying segment), sound muting, or variety in speaking. That is, it is either the deletion is systematically represented in the phonological rule or it is permanently lost.

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b. Types of Stop Deletion

The main forms of stop deletion that occur in English words can be made into three categories. Regarding the observation done of this study, the present writer classifies stop deletion as permanent deletion, non-permanent deletion, and variety-dependent deletion. These categories concern with the nature of the stop in the deletion.

Permanent deletion is deletion of stops in permanent condition. In other words, it does not appear anymore in any English words because the sound for the consonant is already deleted to suit the phonotactic idealization. Phonotactic is the arrangement of phonemes in the specified language to make well-formed syllables and words (Giegerich, 1992: 151). In other words, it deals with the permissible sequence, cluster, or position of word in English language. Moreover, it is related to the so-called phonotactic constraints which cannot be complied by the sound clusters of the syllable or word (Fasold and Connor-Linton, 2006: 41). Hence, this type of deletion is also in line with the sound change. That is, it is the sound which occurred or found in Old English and Middle English but no longer exists in modern pronunciation. The examples are in the words knight, knock, and knee

(O’Grady et al., 2005: 255). In Old and Middle English, the /k/ was pronounced

just as the spelling. Nonetheless, in Modern English, the /k/ is sequentially lost to refine the modern pronunciation. As a result, the words still have their spellings but the pronunciation has been adjusted into English phonology, becoming /na t/, /n k/, and /niː/. Thus, they can be classified as a diachronic phonology that was systematic and also closely associated with word borrowing.

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Next, non-permanent deletion can be denoted as deletion that occurs in particular event. That is, the deletion occurs in some fussy words but it does not happen in some other derived words. Otherwise, it happens because of the phonological conditioning (Bybee, 2003: 97). For instance, the words sign, signal, and signaler are connected by the same morphological linking (i.e. derived from the same morpheme). However, in the case of its phonology, they are not similarly pronounced. In word sign /sa n/, the /g/ is not pronounced but it is pronounced for the other two words signal /ˈs ɡnəl/ and signaler /ˈs ɡnələr/. With this respect, it can be assumed that the deletion is not permanent in all derived-words. It may appear in some words but not to the others. Hence, there must be an operation of the general rules in applying this deletion and this case can be stated as phonological phenomena. Likewise, it can be explained using a phonological rule for the underlying representation.

Lastly, variety dependent is a type of deletion which counts on two factors. First is the case of casual speech and second is the case of regional variation. In the case of casual speech, people may have variation in pronouncing words, especially when it is in informal situation or (probably) in rapid speech. To be exact, the sound is deleted for the sake of phonological simplification or more specifically, consonant cluster simplification. For example, in the word grandma may be uttered as /ˈɡrænm / or even /ˈɡræmm / in a rapid speed. Otherwise, the word desk is pronounced as /des/ in African-American English (AAE) pronunciation (Giegerich, 1992: 284; Finegan, 2004: 386). However, when dealing with formal situation, the word will be pronounced as standard pronunciation. In this case, the /d/ is not pronounced. The second case, regional

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variation deals with the area in which the local people may have variation in speech. For example, the word often may be uttered as /ˈ fən/, /ˈ ftən/, /ˈɔːfən/, and /ˈɔːftən/ in some British Area while /ˈɔːfən/, /ˈ ːfən/, /ˈɔːftən/, /ˈ ːftən/,

/ ːfən/, / ːftən/, / fn/, / ftn/, / fən/, /ɔːfn/, /ɔːftn/, /ɔːftən/, /ɔːfən/, and /ˈ ːfən/ are

pronounced in some other dialects (Jones, 1919: 17). For this study, the variant-dependent of deletion is taken from the pronunciation of the LPD that depends on the phonetic transcriptions provided in the dictionary. It is basically in the form of British English and American English (General American).

5. Phonological Rule

In English, different phonemes mean distinctive sounds. For instance, /n/

and /ŋ/ are separate phonemes since they create different meaning in the words.

Furthermore, in creating word, phonology may impact to the restriction of the sounds permitted in the word-utterance. For example, the phoneme /n/ cannot be

substituted by /ŋ/ for the word not because there is no a word pronounced as /*ŋot/

and moreover, the phonological rules restricts to permit such word in English (Poole, 1999: 59). Similarly, the word knot which in the past was pronounced as

/kn ːt/ is presently no longer anymore. It is because the phonological environment

that affects the phoneme in such cluster cannot be occurred in English as well as the phones interaction (sound cluster) in a word-utterance.

In this respect, the phonological rule is the stating process which takes place in the structure of a particular language in a specific context (McMahon, 2002: 44). In the rule, there will be a surface representation followed by the underlying representation. It is usually illustrated as below.

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Figure 1. Phonological Rule Form (O’Grady et al., 2005: 92) A  B / X ____ Y

In the above figure, A means the element in the underlying representation of the input of the process, the arrow () stands for ‘becomes’ or ‘is rewritten as’, B means the change it undertakes or for the output of the rule, the environment bar

(/) means ‘in the following environment’, while X and Y mean the conditioning

environment or the specification of the change that takes place. So, the above rule

can be simply stated as ‘A becomes B in the environment between X and Y’.

6. Phonological Analysis

Phonology is complemented by phonetics. That is, the study of physical characteristics of sounds. The term ‘sounds’ is a reminder that speech is intended to be heard or perceived and that it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a hearer analyses or processes a sound. Moreover, it deals with the system and patterning of sounds in a language. Hence, it connects with the ways in which humans produce and hear speech. It describes the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in a language. It is also associated with the study of higher level of speech organization (Finch, 2000: 2; Clark & Yallop 1990: 1-2; Ladefoged, 1993: 296).

In this study, the phonological analysis is done in examining the data since they consist of speech sounds. In this sense, phonological analysis can be stated as the study of phonological data. It observes the practice of language organization, involving the use of sounds and the relationships among them. There are certain types of ordinary occasions that demonstrate how humans actually use language.

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It can also connect with the observation of the combinations of letters in its relation to sequence of sounds in a particular language (Wolfram & Johnson, 1982: 1-2).

7. Licit Consonant Clusters in English

As this study deals with stop deletion in the consonant clusters of English, the review on consonant clusters in English is presented in this part. It is provided in this section to give the recognition on the consonant clusters that are discussed in general as well as in particular discussion of this study.

a. Definition

According to Dardjowidjojo (2009: 29, 140-147), a cluster can be defined as two or more consonants that are placed one after the other. The two or more consonants must belong to the same syllable. For example, the word help /lp/, split /spl/, sixths /ksθs/. Likewise, a consonant cluster can be divided into two groups. They are in the beginning (i.e. initial consonant cluster) or at the end (i.e. final consonant cluster) of a syllable or a word.

More specifically, Collins and Mees (2003: 72) define a consonant cluster as a sequence of consonants at the same syllable boundary. In this sense, they emphasize that in the English syllable, the consonant cluster may consist of up to three consonants in initial position as in strong /strɔːŋ/ and four in final position as in glimpsed /ɡlmpst/. Here, the clusters are counted by identifying the sound in the syllable boundary.

Moreover, Radford et al. (2009: 41) define a consonant cluster as a string or a set of more than one consonant in a syllable. The cluster can be preceded by a

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vowel (e.g. ends /endz/) or followed by a vowel (e.g. spray /spreɪ/) but it is rarely the cluster alone (e.g. [*mpts]). It is because in a syllable, there must be the so-called a nucleus or peak which is characteristically represented by a vowel. However, in the case of syllabification, certain sounds such as approximants (e.g. [l] in table [ˈtebḷ]) and nasals (e.g. [m] in bottom [ˈb tṃ]) can be the peak of a syllable. Therefore, consonants like [l] and [m] can be noted also as a syllabic consonant.

b. Licit Consonant Clusters Contain a Stop

As stated before, that English has two types of consonant clusters. They are initial consonant clusters and final consonant clusters. English has these two types of consonant clusters that contain stops. That is, consonant clusters in the word which has stops on it. The first group is the initial consonant cluster combined with stop. This cluster can be made of at least two consonants and the maximum number for it is three consonants. The example of initial cluster contains a stop can be represented in Table 1 below.

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Table 1. English Initial Consonant Sound Clusters Contain a Stop (Adapted from McMahon, 2002 & Dardjowidjojo, 2009)

Two Consonant Cluster

initial [s] [sp] spy [st] stop [sk] sky [sm] small [sn] snow initial [p] [pl] play [pr] pray [pj] pure

initial [b] [bl] blue [br] brand [bj] beauty initial [t] [tr] try [tw] twist [tj] tune initial [d] [dr] draw [dw] dwell [dj] duke initial [k] [kl] clue [kr] cry [kj] cute initial [g] [gr] grow [gl] glam

initial[m] [mj] mute initial [n] [nj] new

Three Consonant Cluster

initial [sp] [spl] (splash) [spr] (sprite) [spj] (spew) initial [st] [str] (strike) [stj] (stew)

initial [sk] [skl] (sclerosis) [skr] (screw) [skw] (square) [skj] skewer) For the two-consonant cluster, English has twenty four clusters combination that contain stop. They are five clusters with initial [s] ([sp], [st], [sk], [sm], [sn]), three clusters with initial [p] ([pl], [pr], [pj]), three clusters with initial [b] ([bl], [br], [bj]), three clusters with initial [t] ([tr], [tw], [tj]), three clusters with initial [d] ([dr], [dw], [dj]), three clusters with initial [k] ([kl], [kr], [kj]), two clusters with initial [g] ([gl], [gr]), one cluster with initial [m] ([mj]), and one cluster with initial [n] ([nj]).

For the three-consonant cluster, it has a strict rule. That is, it must be initiated by [s] (voiceless fricative), followed by voiceless stops [p], [t], or [k] and ended with [l], [r], [w], or [j] (approximant). The examples are in splash [spl], spring [spr], spew [spj], straw [str], stew [stj], sclaff [skl], scribe [skr], skew [skj], and squat [skw].

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The second group is the final consonant cluster. For this type of cluster, the combination is much more varied. There are at least 151 final consonant-cluster combinations in English. Besides, the cluster can be consisted of two, three, or four consonants. The five-consonant cluster is commonly rare but it can be found as in the plural form of the word angsts / ŋksts/ (Dardjowidjojo, 2009: 145-147). In this case, the examples of final consonant cluster combined with a stop can be seen in the following Table 2.

Table 2. English Final Consonant Sound Clusters Contain Stops (Adapted from Dardjowidjojo, 2009: 145-147)

Final Consonant Cluster with Two Consonants FCC

starting with stops

[pt] apt [pθ] depth [ps] apse [ts] Ritz [tθ] eighth

[kt] fact [ks] fax [dz] adze

FCC starting with nasals

[mp] lamp [mf] triumph

[nd] sand [ns]sense [nθ] tenth [n+tʃ] bench [n+dʒ] range

[ŋk] ink

FCC starting with liquids

[lp] help [lt] belt [lk] silk [lm] film [lb] bulb [ld] bold [lθ] health [ln] kiln [rp] harp [rt] smart [rk] fork [rm] arm [rb] herb [rd] cord [rθ] earth [rn] burn FCC starting with

fricatives

[sp] wasp [st] list [sk] ask [ft] left

Final Consonant Cluster with Three Consonants

[kst] text [mpt] attempt [nst] against [rld] world

[ksθ] sixth [mps] glimpse [sps] corpse [rst] burst

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In OE Period the initial clusters such as /hn/, /hl/, /hr/, /wl/, /gn/, /wr/, and /kn/ was permitted. However, in ME period, the first four consonant clusters /hn/, /hl/, /hr/, /wl/ became a single phoneme /n/, /l/, /r/, /l/ respectively while the clusters /gn/, /wr/, and /kn/ still remained. Nevertheless, in EModE the clusters /gn/, /wr/, and /kn/ were reduced to become /n/, /r/, and /n/ respectively as in Middle English, gnawen, wrong, and knight were pronounced as /gnauən/, /wrɔːŋg/, and /kn xt/ but in EModE they are pronounced as /nɔ/, /r ŋ/, and /nʌt/ respectively (Peters, 1968: 99).

8. Sound Muting

Sound muting is dealing with deletion of the sound in the pronunciation. The letter of the spellings is there but the sound is no longer uttered. The disappearance of the sound occurs because of the two cases. The first is because of historical elisions, where a sound which exists in an earlier form of a word was absent in a later form. The example is the mute of all r-sounds in final and before consonant in Southern English like in the words arm, horse, church, more, and other. The absence of these sounds started in the 15th century and became practically general in court circles in 16th century. Other example of historical elision is /l/ in walk and half, /p/ in cupboard, and /d/ in windmill and kindness. The second is because of contextual elisions, in which a sound which exists in a word said by itself is dropped in a compound or in a connected phrase. The examples are the elision of /d/ in blind man, Strand Magazine, and a good deal, the elision of /k/ in take care, and the elision of /t/ in last time and sit down (Jones, 1978: 230).

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Furthermore, Collin and Mees (2003: 103-104) relate the phenomenon of deletion as historical assimilation and elision. On contemporary state, the assimilation and elision occur in contemporary (i.e. present day) process. That is, it happens only at one point of phonetic context, and generally, the assimilation or elision in this extent is optional. Meanwhile, when the so-called “original ideal form” is elided or disappeared, it becomes fossilized as the form turn out to be fixed. In this sense, they argue that there is a case of a historical assimilation and elision process. The example is /p/ in cupboard [ˈkʌbəd] where the original form

[ˈkʌpbəd] has died out. The ‘letter silencing’ of English spelling provides

numerous reminders of historical elision like in the words talk, comb, know, could, gnome, whistle, wrong, and iron.

9. Sounds and Spellings

Sounds and spellings have a mutual relation to spoken language and the written form. It cannot be neglected that they usually have different forms, especially when dealing with English. Finegan (2004: 83, 434) indicates that there is an ‘untidy relationship’ between sound and spelling occurs in languages, including English. They can be stated as independent to each other because the language may be corresponded to different writing systems. English, in this case, has 24 consonant sounds and between 14 and 16 vowels and diphthongs which are only represented by 26 letters of the alphabet.

Furthermore, Akmajian et al. (2001: 71) encode that English orthography or spelling system cannot simply represent speech sounds. There are two main problems related to this. First is that a single letter of the alphabet often represents more than one sound and oppositely for the second problem is that a single speech

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32. maligner /məˈla n əǁ -ər/

33. Mascagni /mæ ˈskæn ji -ˈsk ːn- ǁ m ː ˈsk ːn ji mæ-/ —Italian [ma ˈskaɲɲi] 34. mignon /ˈmn j n ˌ•ˈ• ǁ miːn ˈjoʊn -ˈj ːn, -ˈjɔn/ —French [mi njɔ ]

35. mignonette, M~ ˌ/miːn jəˈnet/

36. Modigliani /ˌm d l ˈj ːn i ǁ ˌmoʊd iːl- moʊˌdiːl i ˈ ːn i/ —Italian [mo diʎˈʎaː ni] 37. Monaghan, Monahan /ˈm n ə hən ǁ ˈm ːn- -hæn/

38. Mulcaghey mʌl ˈkæ hi -ˈkæx i

39. nonalignment ˌn n əˈla n mənt →-la m-; -əl ˈan- ǁˌn ːn- 40. Pagnol /pæn ˈj l ǁ -ˈjoʊl/ —French [pa ˈnjɔl]

41. Paignton /ˈpent ən ǁ -ən/

42. peignoir /ˈpen w ː ǁ pe n ˈw ːr/ —French [p n waːʁ, p nj-] 43. Perpignan /ˈp ːp iːn j ǁˌp ːp iːn ˈj ːn/ —French [p ʁ pi nj ] 44. phlegmy /ˈflem i/

45. physiognomic /ˌfz i‿_ə_ˈn m k ◂_ǁ -ˈn ːm--n ːm--ˈn ːm-/ 46. physiognom|y /ˌf z i ˈ n əm |i -ˈ ɡ nəm- ǁ -ˈ ːɡ nəm |i -ˈ ːn əm-/ 47. poignancy /ˈpɔn jənts i -ənts-/

48. poignant /ˈpɔn jənt -ənt/ 49. resignedly /ri ˈzan d li rə-, -əd-/

50. Romagna /rəʊˈm ːn jə ǁ roʊ-/ —Italian [ɾo ˈmaɲɲa]

51. Sauvignon /ˈsəʊv iːn j n - n-, -j _{, ˌ••ˈ• ǁ ˌsoʊv iːn ˈjoʊ}n/—French [so vi njɔ ] 52. segno /ˈseɡ nəʊˈsen jəʊ, ˈsen- ǁˈse n joʊ/ —Italian [ˈseɲɲo]

53. seigneur /sen ˈj ː sen-; ˈsen jəǁ sen ˈj ː siːn-/ —French [s njœːʁ] 54. seigneurial /sen ˈj ːr i‿əl se n- ǁ sen ˈj ː- -ˈjʊr-/

55. seignior /ˈsen jəǁ -jɔːr/ 56. seigniorage /ˈsen jər dʒ/

57. seigniorial /(ˌ)se n ˈjɔːr i‿_{əl ǁ}-ˈjoʊr-/ 58. seignior|y /ˈsen jər |i/

59. signage /ˈsan dʒ/

60. signboard /ˈsan bɔːd →ˈsam- ǁ -bɔːrd -boʊrd/ 61. signer /ˈsan əǁ -ər/

62. Signor, s~ ˈsiːn jɔː •ˈ• ǁ -jɔːr- —Italian [siɲˈɲoɾ] 63. Signora, s~ siːn ˈjɔːr ə—Italian [siɲˈɲoː ɾa]

64. Signorina, s~ ˌsiːn jɔː ˈriːn ə◂ -jə- —Italian [siɲɲo ˈɾiː na] 65. signpost /ˈsan pəʊst →ˈsam- ǁ -poʊst/

66. signwrit|er /ˈsa n ˌrat| əǁ -ˌrat | ər/

67. soigne, soigné, soignee, soignée ˈsw ːn je •ˈ• ǁ sw ːn ˈje —French [swan je] 68. sovereign|ty /ˈs v rən |ti -r n- ǁˈs ːv-/

69. Teignmouth /ˈtn məθ ˈtiːn-, →ˈtm-/ 70. vignette /vn ˈjet viːn-/ —French [vi nj t]

71. zabaglione ˌzæb əl ˈjəʊn i -æl-, -e ǁˌz ːb əl ˈjoʊn i —Italian zabaione [dza ba ˈjoː ne]

p deletion (7 words)

1. Campbell /ˈkæm bəl/

2. Campbeltown /ˈkæm bəl taʊn/ 3. Campden ˈkæm dən

4. cupboard /ˈkʌb əd ǁ -ərd/ 5. Hampden /ˈhæm dən/ 6. Miscampbell /m ˈskæm bəl/

7. pleuropneumonia ˌplʊər əʊnju ˈməʊn i‿ə §nu- ǁˌplʊr oʊnu ˈmoʊn- nju-

t deletion (76 words)

1. Aitkin /ˈek n/

2. apostle / əˈp s əl ǁ əˈp ːs əl/

3. Birtwhistle, Birtwistle /ˈb ːt ˌws əl -ˌhw s- ǁˈb ːt ˌhws-/ 4. Boscastle / ˈb s ˌk ːs əl -ˌkæs- ǁˈb ːs ˌkæs-/

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6. bristlecone / ˈbr s əl kəʊn ǁ -koʊn/ 7. bristletail / ˈbr s əl teəl/

8. bristly / ˈbr s əl‿i/ 9. bustle / ˈbʌs əl/

10. castl|e, C~ /ˈk ːs əl §ˈkæs- ǁˈkæs əl/

11. Castlebar /ˌk ːs əl ˈb ː §ˌkæs- ǁˌkæs əl ˈb ːr/ 12. Castleford /ˈk ːs əl fəd §ˈkæs- ǁˈkæs əl fərd/ 13. Castlemaine /ˈk ːs əl me n §ˈkæs- ǁˈkæs-/ 14. Castlenau /ˈk ːs əl nɔː §ˈkæs-, -nəʊǁˈkæs-/ 15. Castlerea, Castlereagh /ˈk ːs əl re §ˈkæs-/ 16. Castleton /ˈk ːs əl tən §ˈkæs- ǁˈkæs-/

17. Castlewellan /ˌk ːs əl ˈwel ən §ˌkæs- ǁˌkæs-kæs-/ 18. chasten /ˈtʃe s ən/

19. chipotle /tʃ ˈp t le tʃə-, -li ǁ tʃəˈpoʊt-/ 20. christen /ˈkrs ən/

21. Christendom /ˈkrs ən dəm/ 22. christening /ˈkrs ən‿_ŋ/

23. Christmas /ˈkrs məs/ 24. Christmassy /ˈkrs məs i/ 25. Christmastide /ˈkrs məs ta d/ 26. Christmastime /ˈkrs məs ta / 27. Entwistle /ˈent ws əl/ 28. epistle, E~ / ˈp s əl ə-/

29. fasten /ˈf ːs ən §ˈfæs- ǁˈfæs ən/

30. fastener /ˈf ːs nə §ˈfæs-, ˈ•ən əǁˈfæs ən‿_ər/ 31. fastening /ˈf ːs n ŋ/

32. glisten /ˈɡl s ən/ 33. gristle /ˈɡr s əl/ 34. grist|ly /ˈɡr s |əl‿i/

35. Hardcastle /ˈh ːd ˌk ːs əl →ˈh ːɡ-, §-ˌkæs- ǁˈh ːrd ˌkæs əl/ 36. hasten /ˈhes ən/

37. hautbois /ˈəʊ |bɔ ˈhəʊ-, ˈhɔːt- ǁˈhoʊ- ˈoʊ-/

38. Horncastle /ˈhɔːn ˌk ːs əl →ˈhɔːŋ-, §-ˌkæs- ǁˈhɔːrn ˌkæs əl-kæs-/ 39. hostler /ˈ s ləˈh s- ǁˈ ːs lər/

40. hustl|e /ˈhʌs əl/

41. hustler /ˈhʌs ləˈhʌs əl‿əǁ -lər/ 42. jostl|e /ˈdʒ s əl ǁ ˈdʒ ːs-/ 43. listen /ˈls ən/

44. listenable /ˈls ən‿əb əl/ 45. listener /ˈls ən‿_ə_ǁ_ər/ 46. mistle /ˈms əl/

47. mistletoe /ˈms əl təʊˈm z- ǁ -toʊ/ 48. moisten /ˈmɔs ən/

49. moistener /ˈmɔs ənə/ 50. moistening /ˈmɔs ənŋ/ 51. nestl|e /ˈnes əl/

52. nestling part of nestle /ˈnes əl‿_ŋ/

53. Newcastle ˈnjuː ˌk ːs əl §ˈnuː-, §-ˌkæs-, §•ˈ•• ǁ ˈnuː ˌkæs əl ˈnjuː- —In Tyne & Wear,

locally njuː ˈkæs əl

54. often ˈ f ən ˈ ft ən, ˈɔːf ən, ˈɔːft ən ǁ ˈɔːf ən ˈ ːf-; ˈɔːft ən, ˈ ːft 55. Oldcastle ˈəʊld ˌk ːs əl →ˈ ʊld-, §-ˌkæs- ǁˈoʊld ˌkæs əl 56. ostler, /O~ ˈ s ləǁˈ ːs lər/

57. Oswaldtwistle ˈ z wəld ˌtws əl -əl- ǁˈ ːz- 58. pestl|e /ˈpes əl ˈpest-/

59. Postlethwaite /ˈp s əl θwe t ǁ ˈp ːs-/ 60. rustl|e /ˈrʌs əl/

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62. rustling ˈrʌs əl‿ŋʌslŋrʌsəlŋˈrʌslŋˈrʌsəlŋ

63. sandcastle /ˈsænd ˌk ːs əl →ˈsæŋ-, §-ˌkæs- ǁ -ˌkæs əl-kæs-/ 64. soften /ˈs f ən ˈsɔːf- ǁˈsɔːf ən ˈs ːf-/

65. softener /ˈs f ən‿əˈsɔːf- ǁˈsɔːf ən‿ər ˈs ːf-/ 66. thistle /ˈθs əl/

67. thistledown /ˈθs əl daʊn/ 68. Thistlethwaite /ˈθs əl θwet/ 69. thistly /ˈθs əl‿i/

70. throstle /ˈθr s əl ǁ ˈθr ːs əl/

71. unfasten /(ˌ)ʌn ˈf ːs ən §-ˈfæs- ǁ -ˈfæs-/ 72. Wastdale /ˈw s dəl ˈw st-, -deəl ǁ ˈw ːst-/ 73. whistl|e ˈws əl ˈhws-

74. whistler, W~ /ˈws ləˈhw s- ǁ -ər/ 75. wrestl|e ˈres əl ǁ ˈræs-

76. wrestler ˈres ləˈ•əl‿_ə_ǁ_ˈres lər ˈræs-

k deletion (16 words)

1. antiknock /ˌænt i ˈn k/ /ˌænt i ˈn ːk/ 2. breadknife / ˈbred| naf/

3. Brecknock /ˈbrek n k -nək ǁ -n ːk/ 4. doorknob /ˈdɔː n b ǁ ˈdɔːr n ːb/

5. doorknocker /ˈdɔː ˌn k əǁˈdɔːr ˌn ːk ər/ 6. foreknowledge /fɔː ˈn l dʒǁ(ˌ)fɔːr ˈn ːl-/ 7. jack|knife /ˈdʒækna f/

8. slipknot /ˈslp n t ǁ -n ːt/ 9. topknot /ˈt p n t ǁ ˈt ːp n ːt/

10. unbeknown ˌʌn bi ˈnəʊn ◂→ˌʌm-, -bə- ǁ -ˈnoʊn 11. unbeknownst ˌʌn bi ˈnəʊntst →ˌʌm-, -bə- ǁ -ˈnoʊntst 12. un|knit ˌʌn |ˈnt

13. un|knot /ˌʌn |ˈn t ǁ -|ˈn ːt/

14. unknowab|le (ˌ)ʌn ˈnəʊəb |əl ǁ -ˈnoʊ- 15. unknowing (ˌ)ʌn ˈnəʊ ŋ ǁ -ˈnoʊ- 16. unknown ˌʌn ˈnəʊn ◂_ǁ -ˈnoʊn

n deletion (1 words)

1. damnedest /ˈdæmd st/

3. FINAL POSITION (132 WORDS)

b deletion (64 words)

1. addiscombe / ˈæd s kəm/ 2. aplomb /əˈpl m/ ǁ -ˈpl ːm 3. backcomb /ˈbæk kəʊm ǁ -koʊm/ 4. balcomb /ˈbɔːlk əm ˈb lk- ǁˈb ːlk-/ 5. balcombe /ˈbɔːlk əm ˈb lk- ǁˈb ːlk-/ 6. benumb /bi ˈnʌm bə-/

7. bomb / b m ǁ b ːm/ 8. bombe / b m ǁ b ːm/ 9. breadcrumb /ˈbred krʌm/ 10. Buncombe /ˈbʌŋk əm/

11. catacomb /ˈkæt əkuːm -kəʊm ǁ ˈkæt ə koʊm/ 12. climb /kla m/

13. cockscomb /ˈk ks kəʊm ǁ ˈk ːks koʊm/ 14. Columb /ˈk l əm ǁ ˈk ːl-/

15. comb /kəʊm ǁ koʊm/ 16. Combe, combe /kuːm/ 17. coomb, coombe, C~ /kuːm/

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18. coulomb, C~ /ˈkuːl m ǁ - ːm/ 19. coxcomb /ˈk ks kəʊm ǁ ˈk ːks koʊm/ 20. crumb /krʌm/

21. debt /det/

22. doorjamb /ˈdɔː dʒæm ǁ ˈdɔːr-/ 23. doubt /daʊt/

24. dumb /dʌm/

25. Edgecomb, Edgecombe /ˈedʒ kəm/ 26. entomb /n ˈtuːm/

27. Farncombe /ˈf ːn kəm →ˈf ːŋ- ǁˈf ːrn-/ 28. firebomb /ˈfa‿_ə b m ǁ ˈfa‿_ər b ːm/ 29. forelimb /ˈfɔː l m ǁ ˈfɔːr-/

30. Gatcomb, Gatcombe /ˈɡæt kəm/ 31. hecatomb /ˈhek ətuːm -təʊm ǁ -toʊm/

32. Holcomb, Holcombe /ˈhəʊl kəm →ˈh ʊl-; ˈh l-, ˈhəʊ- ǁˈhoʊl-/ 33. honeycomb /ˈhʌn i kəʊm ǁ -koʊm/

34. jamb /dʒæm/ dʒæmb (usually = jam) 35. lamb, Lamb /læm/

36. limb /l m/

37. mailbomb /ˈme əl b m ǁ -b ːm/

38. Newcomb, Newcombe, Newcome ˈnjuːk əm §ˈnuːk- ǁˈnuːk- ˈnjuːk- 39. numb /nʌm/

40. Parracombe /ˈpær əkuːm ǁ ˈper-/ 41. plumb /plʌm/ (= plum)

42. Pyecombe /ˈpa kuːm/ 43. redoubt /ri ˈdaʊt/

44. rhomb /r m r mb ǁ r ːm r ːmb/ 45. rhumb /rʌm (= rum)/

46. Salcombe /ˈsɔːlk əm ˈs lk- ǁˈs ːlk-/ 47. Secombe /ˈsiːk əm/

48. Sedlescombe /ˈsed əlz kəm/

49. Slocombe, Slocum /ˈsləʊk əm ǁ ˈsloʊk-/ 50. succumb /səˈkʌm/

51. Swanscombe ˈsw nz kəm ǁ ˈsw ːnz- 52. Telscombe /ˈtels kəm/

53. thumb /θʌm/ 54. tomb tuːm (!) 55. Tombs /tuːmz/

56. toothcomb /ˈtuːθ kəʊm §ˈtʊθ- ǁ -koʊm/ 57. unplumbed ˌʌn ˈplʌmd ◂_→ˌʌm-

58. Widdecombe, Widdicombe ˈwd kəm -ə- 59. Widecombe ˈwd kəm -ə-

60. Withycombe ˈw ð i kəm

61. Wiveliscombe ˈwv ə l s kəm —locally also ˈwls kəm 62. womb wuːm (!)

63. Woolacombe ˈwʊl ə kəm 64. Wycombe ˈwk əm

d deletion (8 words)

1. Arendt /ˈ ːr ənt/

2. Darmstadt /ˈd ːm stæt ǁ ˈd ːrm/

3. Humboldt /ˈhʌm bəʊlt ˈhʊm-, →-b ʊlt ǁ -boʊlt/ —German [ˈhʊm bɔlt] 4. Rembrandt /ˈrem brænt -brənt/ —Dutch [ˈr m br nt]

5. Ronstadt /ˈr n stæt ǁ ˈr ːn-/

6. Scheldt /ʃelt skelt/ —Dutch Schelde [ˈsx l də] 7. Schmidt /ʃm t/

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g deletion (49 words)

1. align /əˈla n/

2. apophthegm / ˈæp əθem / 3. apothegm / ˈæp əθem/ 4. arraign /əˈre n/ 5. assign /əˈsa n/

6. Auvergne / əʊˈveən -ˈv ːn ǁ oʊˈveərn -ˈv ːn/ 7. benign / bəˈna n/

8. Boulogne / bu ˈlɔn bə- ǁ -ˈloʊn / 9. campaign /kæm ˈpen/

10. champagne, C~ /ˌʃæm ˈpen/ 11. Champaign /ʃæm ˈpen/

12. Charlemagne /ˈʃ ːl ə me n -man ǁ ˈʃ ːrl-/ 13. Cockaigne /k ˈke n kə- ǁ k ː/

14. coign /kɔn/

15. cologne, C~ /kəˈləʊn ǁ -ˈloʊn/

16. condign /kən ˈda n ˈk n dan ǁ ˈk ːn da n/ 17. consign /kən ˈsan/

18. countersign verb /ˈkaʊnt ə san ǁ ˈkaʊnt ər/ 19. deign /de n/

20. design /di ˈzan də-/ 21. diaphragm /ˈda‿_ə fræm/

22. Dordogne /dɔː ˈdɔ n ǁ dɔːr ˈdoʊn/ 23. ensign /ˈen san/

24. epergne / ˈp ːn e-, -ˈpeən ǁ ˈp ːn e-/ 25. feign /fe n/

26. foreign /ˈf r ən -n ǁ ˈfɔːr ən/ 27. impugn /m ˈpjuːn/

28. malign /məˈla n/ 29. misalign /ˌms əˈla n/

30. nonaligned /ˌn n əˈla nd ◂ -əl ˈand ◂_ǁ_ˌn ːn-/ 31. oppugn /əˈpjuːn/

32. paradigm /ˈpær ə da m ǁˈper-, -d m/ 33. phlegm /flem/

34. Pomagne trademark /pəʊˈmen ǁ poʊ-/ 35. Presteigne /(ˌ)pre ˈstiːn/

36. realign /ˌriː‿_ə_ˈla n/ 37. reassign /ˌriː‿əˈsa n/ 38. reign /re n (= rain)/ 39. resign /ri ˈzan rə-/ 40. sign /sa n/ (= sine)

41. sovereign /ˈs v r n -rən ǁ ˈs ːv rən ˈs ːv ər ən/ 42. syntagm /ˈsn tæm/

43. Teign /tiːn tn/ 44. thegn /θen/ (= thane) 45. Tignes /tiːn/ —French [tiɲ] 46. unaligned ˌʌn əˈla nd ◂

47. undersigned ˌʌnd əˈsa nd ◂_ˈ•••_ǁ -ər- 48. unsigned ˌʌn ˈsand ◂

(6)

p deletion (1 word)

1. re|ceipt /ri |ˈsiːt/

t deletion (2 words)

1. Flaubert /ˈfləʊb eəǁ floʊˈbeər/

2. Gericault, Géricault ˈʒer kəʊ -ə- ǁˌʒe r ˈkoʊ—French [ʒe ʁi ko]

n deletion (8 words)

1. autumn / ˈɔːt əm ǁ ˈɔːt əm / 2. column /ˈk l əm ǁ ˈk ːl əm/ 3. condemn /kən ˈdem/ 4. contemn /kən ˈtem/ 5. damn /dæm/

6. goddamn /ˈɡ d æm ǁ ˌɡ ːdˈdæm/ 7. limn /l m/

Stop deletion in orthographical consonant clusters of English words.

Mariaty Wijaya

p deletion (7 words)

t deletion (76 words)

k deletion (16 words)

n deletion (1 words)

3.

FINAL POSITION (132 WORDS)

b deletion (64 words)

d deletion (8 words)

g deletion (49 words)

p deletion (1 word)

t deletion (2 words)

n deletion (8 words)

Parts

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Stop deletion in orthographical consonant clusters of English words.

Mariaty Wijaya

p deletion (7 words)

t deletion (76 words)

k deletion (16 words)

n deletion (1 words)

3.

FINAL POSITION (132 WORDS)

b deletion (64 words)

d deletion (8 words)

g deletion (49 words)

p deletion (1 word)

t deletion (2 words)

n deletion (8 words)

Parts

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