Kemp’s Model of Instructional Material Design

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents a discussion of theories which the study was developed. This includes two main part of concern, Theoretical Description and Theoretical Framework. The Theoretical Description describes some related theories which were needed in designing the materials. The Theoretical Framework presents the essence of the theories discussed in the Theoretical Description. It includes putting the concept of the Theoretical Description as the base theory in designing the instructional material based on the Natural Approach.

A. Theoretical Description

1. Instructional Material Design

There are two instructional design models obtained in the study. They are Kemp’s model and Yalden’s models. The brief explanation will be elaborated in the following discussion.

a. Kemp’s Model of Instructional Material Design

Kemp 1977: 7 pointed out that instructional design is the process of systematic planning that establishes a way to examine instructional problem and needs, set a procedure for solving them, and then evaluates the results. Kemp’s instructional design can be applied in all education levels from elementary to collages and from individual topics to units and then to complete courses. In PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI general, the plan is designed to supply the answers about objectives, activities and resources, and evaluation of the materials. Kemp offers eight parts in designing an instructional design plan. The eight steps are important to be included in designing materials. Figure 2.1 shows Kemp’s diagram of instructional design plan that illustrates the relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps. The broken lines in the diagrams indicated revisions of elements made necessary by evaluation data gathered on learners’ accomplishment of objectives. Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Instructional Model Kemp, 1977: 9 Kemps defines the instructional material as follows. Revise Goals, Topics and General Purposes Learners’ Characteristics Learning Objectives Subject Content Pre- assessment Teaching Learning Activities and Resources Support Service Evaluation PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Step 1. Defining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes In making the design, a designer should identify goals, choose major topics, and list the general purposes. The first parts stars with the recognition of the goals. The goals may be derived from society, learners, and subject areas. After recognizing or establishing the goals, major topics should be chosen and scoped the course or program. Afterwards, general purposes should be listed for each topic. General purpose is what learners generally are expected to learn as a result of instruction 1977: 13. Step 2. Finding out Learner Characteristics Learners are considered as individuals and groups. In serving both group and individuals, teachers must obtain information about the learners’ characteristics; those are academic factors such as academic background, level of intelligence, and study habits and social factors such as age, maturity, and special talent. Besides, other factors such as learning conditions and learning styles become particularly important which should also be considered in the plan to support learners maximizing their achievement both as individuals and groups. Step 3. Specifying Learning Objectives Learning objectives concerns as the outcomes of instruction. Therefore, objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning. Learning objectives should be measurable and unambiguous. The objectives for learning can be grouped into three major categories; those are cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. Common school system usually considers only one PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI domain of cognitive to be achieved in academic value. However, good learning objectives should cover the three domains to promote the best learning outcome. Step 4. Organizing Subject Content A student’s learning experiences must closely relate to the objectives and to the student’s needs and interest. Subject content comprises the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements and attitudinal factors of any topic Kemp, 1977: 44. Textbooks are usually considered as the primary resource of subject content. However, content is dynamic and changing. Therefore, traditional sources and new sources should be reorganized and combined to create other sources of subject content. Step 5. Developing Pre-Assessment Pre-assessment is needed to gather data about general knowledge of individual learners’ background. According to Kemp 1977: 51, there are two kind of test in pre-assessment; those are prerequisite testing and pretesting. Teacher should know that the learners are ready to learn the topic before the activities. Learners’ preparation to study will enable them to achieve the objectives and to master the topic. Further, the result of pre-assessments may also affect instructional planning in eliminating, modifying, or adding objectives to the program after the result are analyzed. Step 6. Planning Teaching Learning Activities and Resources The teacher must determine the appropriate methods and then select materials and instructional resources to provide learning experiences so that the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI learners can accomplish each objective. The teacher needs to know the strengths and weaknesses of alternative methods and of various materials. Further, the teacher can make selection in terms of the student characteristics and needs that will best serve the objectives which have established. Step 7. Organizing Support Services These services include budget, facilities, equipment, time and schedule. Coordination of each support service must be considered at the same time with making instructional plans and selecting the materials. Coordinating and communicating with others in the building or school system can also develop understanding and thus maintain good feelings. Step 8. Evaluating Student’s Achievement In this stage, the teacher is ready to measure learners’ accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and re-evaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement. In order to measure the learners’ achievement, the teacher should determine standards of achievement. The standard is the criterion specified by the learning objectives. The measurement can be in the form of evaluation. There are two kinds of evaluation; those are formative and summative evaluation. Evaluation also refers to the evaluation of the program. It aims to know how well the program serves the objectives. It is useful for determining any weaknesses in the instructional plan, so the teacher can improve them. This can be indicated by test results, reactions from learners, observations of learners at work and suggestions from colleagues Kemp, 1977: 98. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI There is an interdependent among the eight elements, so decisions relating to one may affect others. However, the process in making the instructional plan is flexible. The first step taken can be from whichever element the designer is ready to create and then move back and forth to the other steps to treat most of the eight.

b. Yalden’s Model of Instructional Design