The role of learner as negotiator – between the self, the learning process, and the object of learning – emerges from and interacts with
the role of joint negotiator within the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is that he should contribute as much as he
gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way.
From this role, students are expected to interact primarily with each other rather than with the teacher, and correction of errors may be absent or infrequent
and learners learn to see that failed communication is a joint responsibility and not the fault of speaker or listener.
f. Types of Learning and Teaching Activities in CLT
Littlewood 1981: 20-21, in his book, he distinguished the communicative activities in CLT. There are two main categories:
1 Functional communication activities
Teacher can design the communicative activities in the classroom which emphasize the functional aspect of communication. The main purpose of the
activity is that learner should use the language they know in order to get meanings across as effectively as possible. Because of this emphasize on being functionally
effective, activities of this type formulates functional communication activities. 2
Social Interaction Activities One of the important aspects of communication skill is the ability to take
account of the social meaning as well as the functional meaning of different language forms Littlewood: 1981: 20. Expectantly, the competent speakers
should use language not only functionally effective, but also appropriate to the social situation they are in. Learners must still aim to convey meanings
effectively, but must also pay greater attention to the social context in which the interaction takes place. Then, role-playing and simulation become important
techniques for creating social situation and relationships. Activities of this type are called social interaction activities.
3. Writing
a. What is writing
Nowadays, writing is very important in some aspects. When people learn a second language, they learn to communicate with other people: to understand
them, talk to them, read what they have written, and write to them. Learning how to communicate when other persons is not right there in front of us, listening to
our words and looking at our gestures and facial expressions becomes an integral
part of participating fully in a new cultural setting Raimes, 1983: 3.
Tiedt states that writing is a method of expressing ideas about any subject content 1989: 1. Baskoff says that a student writing a composition faces three
problems: what to say, how to organize, and how to say 1969: 3. The topic of the composition, which is something within the student’s personal experience or
knowledge, provides him of what to say. Clifford supports the ideas by presenting a diagram of the components of
the writing process 1991: 41-42. The diagram of the component of the writing process is shown in Figure 2.3.
