To get the information needed, there are several ways that can be done by the researcher such as through observation, surveys, questionnaire, interviews,
situation analysis, and so on. In developing learning materials, the developer should do it systematically. It means that there should be steps to be followed by the
developer to make good learning materials. The process should be well organized. Below is the diagram which contains some steps of developing learning
materials stated by Jolly and Bolito in Tomlinson 1998:98:
Figure 2.2. Steps of Developing Learning Materials
Based on the diagram, there were some adaptations made. To develop learning materials, the developer starts by doing identification of the needs or commonly
called by needs analysis. After it is identified, the results are used as the basis to develop the syllabus of the materials. After it is developed, the materials must be
evaluated by the evaluator or validator. He judges whether it has meet the students’
needs or not. From the diagram above, we can also see that the process of making the materials is not a linear way since it goes on according to the learners’ needs.
Exploration of needs Contextual realization of materials
Pedagogical realization of materials Production of the materials
Student use of materials Evaluation of the material against agreed objectives
4. Developing Unit of the Materials
There are 6 steps procedures in developing unit of the materials according to Nunan 2004: 31-32. Those steps are providing schema building, providing
controlled practice, providing authentic listening practice, focusing on linguistic elements, providing freer practice, and the last is introduceing the pedagogical task.
Each is described in the following paragraph. The first step, schema building, aims to develop students schemata. The
activities are made in order to introduce the topic, set the context for the tasks, and introduce the key vocabularies and expressions needed by the students to complete
the tasks. Then, the next step aims to provide students with controlled practice in using the target language vocabulary, structure, and function. The controlled
practice extends the scaffolded learning that was done in step 1. After that, the third step provides the students with intensive listening practice. In this step, students are
exposed to authentic or simulated listening inputs to extend the language. Next, the fourth step focuses on the lisnguistic elements of the inputs. Unlike the traditional
approach which tends to present the linguistic elements outside the context, the task-based language teaching presents the students with the target language within
a communicative context in the begining to make it easier for the students to see the relationship between the communicative context and linguistic form. Then, in the
fifth step students are engaged in the freer practice where they move beyond simple manipulation. The students should be encouraged to use whatever language they
have at their disposal to complete the tasks. Next is the last step where students are introduced to the pedagogical task itself by doing small group task.
5. The tasks
Tasks are familiarly known by the students. It cannot be separated in the teaching and learning process. It is also categorized as an important element to help
the students to reach the goal of their study. Below is the explanation of tasks start from the definition, the components, the types, and the like.
a. Defining Tasks
The following presents what is meant by ‘tasks’. There are so many scientists
that have their own idea to define its meaning. Nunan 2004 draws a basic distinction between real-world or target tasks, and pedagogical tasks. He says that
the first refers to the use of language in the world beyond the classroom and the last refers to the use of language that occurs in the classroom. Target tasks are the things
that people do in their real life such as buying things in the supermarket, painting fence, making ticket reservations, ordering foods, making announcement, making
coffee and so on. He also adds that this definition of tasks is categorized as non- technical and non-linguistic. Some of the examples of tasks above may not require
the use of language. When someone is making coffee, there is a possibility that he is not talking. Meanwhile, pedagogical tasks are the outcome when the real-world
tasks are transformed to the classroom. Here is a definition of pedagogical tasks.
…an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing and understanding language i.e. as a response. For example, drawing a map while
listening to a tape, listening to an instruction and performing a command may be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production of
language. A tasks usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successfully completion of the tasks. The use of variety of different kinds of
tasks in language teaching is said to make language teaching more
communicative…since it provides a purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake.
Adapted from: Richards, et al. 1986: 289 in Nunan, 2004: 2
From the explanation above, the pedagogical tasks focus on the activities which are done inside the classroom. The statement above also states that it is better to use
different kinds of tasks so that the teaching and learning process can be more communicative. In addition, it emphasizes the importance of having a non-
linguistic outcome. Branden 2006 also makes a similar distinction in defining tasks. He
gathers many ideas from other scientists and in the end makes two categories to define tasks. First is the definition of tasks as language learning goal. Using a
language is a mean to an end: by understanding language input and by producing language output. The students get a better outcome if they use the language to
interact with people in a real life situation. The second definition of tasks is educational activities. It emphasizes that
there should be a close link between the activities or tasks done by the students with the outside world. Those tasks should be related to what the students are supposed
to do in the real world target tasks. So, needs analysis is needed to establish course content in terms of the real-world target tasks. In addition, this definition also
emphasizes on the primacy of meaning: the learners’ attention should be directed
towards meaning exchange. Tasks should facilitate the students with meaningful interaction. It should give them the opportunity to process meaningful input and
