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4. Impact of forest degradation
The degradation of the Himalayan mountain environment not only affects the livelihoods of mountain communities but also has a significant impact on the adjacent plains ICIMOD 1993. Degradation of natural resources and loss of
biodiversity in the Nepal Himalaya have become a major concern, and the sustainable management of biological resources and conservation of biodiversity have emerged as major challenges.
It is difficult to estimate the total value of forestry to Nepal as a great deal of activity is at the subsistence level and therefore does not appear in trade statistics. The government estimates that forestry accounts for around 15 percent of
the GNP. In 2008 forests generated 9 percent of the GDP but in 19881989 forestry accounted for only 3.2 percent of total government expenditure Acharya et al. 2012. MoFSC 1988 estimated that the total value of the annual consumption
of timber, fuelwood and fodder was NR10 500 million, NR12 700 million and NR3 150 million respectively, of which 90 percent of the timber and fuelwood and 99 percent of the fodder were consumed in Nepal without entering the market.
Other minor forest products which are important in the domestic context are pine resin, lokta and bamboo for paper- making, thatching grasses for roofing and a plethora of medicinal herbs and shrubs. No estimate appears to have been
made of the total value of these products.
4.1 Environmental degradation in Nepal
About a quarter of the population of Nepal depends on the forest for employment and collection of forest products. This has resulted in heavy depletion of forests, leading to serious environmental degradation. According to Eckholm 1976
there is probably no other mountain country where the forces of escalating ecological degradation have been so rapid and visible. It is obvious that the destruction of hill and Terai forests is increasing due to demand for cultivable land, fuelwood,
fodder and timber Rieger 1976.
Denudation: Denudation is the consequence of the increasing pressure of human and ruminant populations on forest resources. It has been widespread in many hill regions of Nepal, and its pace has accelerated in recent times. Deforestation
at the tops of ridges and hills in many areas has presumably lessened the moisture-retaining capacity of the soil.
Soil erosion: Closely associated with the problem of deforestation is soil erosion. Unrestricted and unscientific terraced cultivation and excessive overgrazing have been increasing the rate of erosion. Deforestation and soil erosion are inseparably
linked with each other. For an agrarian economy, soil is vital for producing basic necessities. It has been estimated that 240 million m
3
of soil are lost every year in Nepal.
Landslidesnatural disasters: There may be natural landslides, but human intervention especially on forest ecosystems has increased their frequency and gravity. A mountainous country like Nepal that experiences loss of forest cover faces severe
threats from landslides. Every year landslides and floods result in human and animal mortality, generating considerable economic damage. On average 300 lives are lost, 8 600 homes are destroyed and 12 000 to 15 000 ha of arable lands are
washed away annually NPC 1991. This is partly attributable to deforestation.
Siltation: Siltation occurs because of erosion and frequent landslides. The rivers become filled with silt in the summer. Due to raised beds, during monsoon rains heavy floods occur changing the usual river course and contributing to the
destruction of irrigation canals, structures and human settlements WECS 2010.
Biodiversity: Loss of biodiversity is occurring at all levels while ecosystems are being degraded and destroyed. Various species are being driven to extinction due to deforestation and other activities, but the magnitude of such loss is not
known exactly.
Cultural heritage of indigenous people: Damage induced by deforestation to the unique cultural heritage of tribal people is irreparable. The Chepang tribes in the mid-hills, formerly artisans and cereal traders, have been forced to change
to farming or manual labour. In the long term, deforestation and forest degradation could also damage ecotourism such as trekking, hiking and rafting.
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5. Implications of forest restoration and rehabilitation initiatives
5.1 History of initiatives, strategies and techniques
National-level degradation control – history of policy measures: Until 1951, forest resources were used as one of the main sources of government revenue. After 1951, the government gradually enacted several policies and legislations with
regard to forest resource development. The most prominent policies and legislations include: the Forest Nationalization Act 1957, the Wildlife Protection Act 1958, the Forest Act 1961, the Forest Protection Act 1967, the National Parks and
Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, the National Forestry Plan of 1976, the Panchayat Rules and Panchayat Forest Rules 1978, the Soil Conservation and Watershed Act 1982, the National Conservation Strategy 1988, the Master Plan for the Forestry
Sector 1989, the Forest Act 1993, the Nepal Environment Policy and Action Plan 1993, the Environment Protection Act 1996, the Forestry Sector Policy 2000, the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy 2002 and the Leasehold Forestry Policy 2002.
The Master Plan for the Forestry Sector 1989 and other conservation policies have developed many strategies and programmes to cope with deforestation and forest degradation. Of these programmes the community forestry and
leasehold forestry programme is an effective intervention to halt and reverse degradation and deforestation. At the moment, the government has handed over a total of about 1.7 million ha of state-owned forests to 18 133 CFUGs for
development, conservation, management and sustainable use DoF 2013. The government, with the financial assistance of the International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD and technical support from FAO, has been implementing the
pro-poor leasehold forestry programme that has been effective in reversing environmental degradation.
The Terai Arc Landscape TAL Strategic Plan MoFSC 2006 aims to restore and conserve forest resources outside protected areas to maintain ecological integrity and support sustainable livelihoods. The plan envisages the restoration of 70 percent
of degraded forests via natural regeneration and 30 percent via plantation. The restored corridors and bottlenecks will contribute to restoring degraded habitats and reducing grazing pressure in the future. MoEST 2006 has estimated that
an area of about 18 000 ha was rehabilitated annually Table 6.
Table 6. Land under rehabilitation
Adapted from MoEST 2006.
Many forestry sector programmes such as community forestry, leasehold forestry, pasture development, soil and water conservation, conservation of protected areas and development of markets for non-wood forest products NWFPs are
being implemented in selected locations with increased people’s participation. Enhanced attempts are underway to manage the buffer zone areas surrounding the protected areas for biodiversity conservation. Buffer zone management
scheme areas are already underway using the participatory approach, however, the objectives are different.
Forest management and development plans were developed for a number of national forests but with limited or no implementation. This has resulted in poorer results than expected in terms of rehabilitation, production, number of forest
industries, employment and overall contribution to the economy. The Ninth and Tenth Five Year Plans 1998 and 20022003 attributed this condition to lack of proper allocation of funds and attention to the forestry sector.
Involvement of NGOs: The forest and biodiversity resources of Nepal are scattered and it is not possible for the government to manage them alone. NGOs are therefore mobilized as necessary for sustainable forest resource management. The Nepal
Trust for Nature Conservation, the Mountain Institute, WWF, IUCN and so forth are all involved in biodiversity conservation and sustainable forest resource management.
Coordination among donors and the government: Nepal has maintained relations with many countries and organizations as development partners. In order to achieve better coordination, the MoFSC has formed the Forestry Sector
Coordination Committee FSCC. The FSCC discusses problems and gives advice to the government, maintains uniformity in programme implementation and also avoids duplication of activities.
International cooperation: The forestry sector of Nepal has received technical and grant assistance from foreign aid for more than 40 years. Due to the low revenue surplus from the forestry sector, financing of development expenditures for
the forestry sector is largely met by foreign aid, as the government has allocated less than 2 percent of the total national budget for the sector. A significant number of forestry sector development programmes and projects have been financed
with foreign aid.
Land area under rehabilitation
Rehabilitation of degraded croplands Rehabilitation of degraded rangelands
Rehabilitation of degraded forests
Area ha
5 176 900
12 992
Remarks
Rehabilitated annually Rehabilitated annually
Rehabilitated annually
