Underlying causes Descriptive FLR strategies

160 7. Case study on forest restoration using the Framework Species Method The Forest Restoration Research Unit FORRU of the Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand was established in association with Doi Suthep-Pui National Park in 1994. FORRU adapted a forest restoration method called the Framework Species Method from Queensland, Australia Goosem and Tucker 1995. This method is aimed at restoring structure e.g. biodiversity and functions e.g. productivity of degraded forests into their former stage using framework species FORRU 2006. The framework species are indigenous trees, e.g. Fagaceae Castanopsis, Lithocarpus and Quercus, Leguminosae Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Afzelia xylocarpus, Archidendron clyperia, Erythina subumbran and Peltophorum dasyrhachis, and Moraceae e.g. Ficus spp. that grow fast, have a spreading crown to suppress weeds, are fire resilient and provide nectar and fruits from an early stage for wildlife FORRU 2006. During 1994-1997, FORRU surveyed the tree species of Doi Suthep-Pui National Park and recorded their phenology and collected seeds to be germinated for about one year to their planting sizes in nurseries. In 1997, FORRU established trial plots for forest restoration in collaboration with Mae Sa Mai Hmong village, north of Doi Suthep Mountain. Additional trial plots have been planted with the framework tree species annually since then. A non-planted area was also established as a control. During the first few years of the establishment of the trial plots, research on site preparation and silvicultural treatments was conducted to come up with appropriate treatments for restoration. Before planting, the area was surveyed for existing plant and bird diversity to examine recovery of biodiversity after planting. For other areas, degradation levels were assessed five stages, Table 7 according to FORRU’s protocol FORRU 2008, so that appropriate methods other than the Framework Species Method could be recommended Table 8. For the Framework Species Method, an area is normally prepared by manual weeding or applying chemical herbicide, minimally. FORRU recommends planting 20-30 framework tree species of the indigenous species mentioned earlier that are major components of the hill evergreen forests of Northern Thailand about 1 000 masl. The legume trees can fix nitrogen, the oak trees provide the framework and fruits for wildlife, and so do the figs which also provide food for wildlife, especially during the dry season, as they bear fruit throughout the year. Other species can be selected from the list of framework species. The trees are planted at 3 125 seedlingsha. They are monitored for survival after planting. Direct seeding can be a cheap alternative restoration method as it involves no seedling production and transportation, or planting costs. FORRU has had a limited number of experiments with direct seeding. In comparison to seedlings that were raised in nurseries, trees grown from seeds grew faster and had better-developed roots. However, seeds directly sown can face some problems with dryness, seed predation by wildlife and competition with weeds. Even though the Framework Species Method developed by FORRU has proven to be successful in restoring seasonally-dry evergreen forests, limited trials were also conducted in mixed-deciduous forests at lower elevations, and mountains, i.e. approximately 1 000 masl, of Northern Thailand, with replications in other regions of Thailand, Cambodia, China and the Philippines. There are still a number of challenges. In Northern Thailand, remaining degraded areas are now difficult to restore due to their steep slopes and inaccessibility. As a result, FORRU is trying to develop an aerial-seeding forest restoration technique. The technique will employ unmanned aerial vehicles to carry seeds to be dropped onto areas with steep slopes Stephen Elliott, pers. comm.. Table 7. The five stages of degradation FORRU 2008 3 FORRU 2006, 2008 available at http:www.forru.org; Elliott 2013. Degradation level 1 Least degraded 2 Vegetation More trees than weeds Mixed trees and herbaceous weeds Fire risk Low Medium Seed dispersers Common large and small species Large species becoming rare, small species still common Sources of regeneration Viable soil seed bank, dense seedling bank, dense seed rain, tree stumps Seed and seedling banks depleted, live tree stumps common Soil Mostly fertile Mostly fertile, low erosion Forest Large remnants remain as seed sources Remnants as seed sources Site factor Landscape factor 161 Table 8. Responses to different forest degradation levels FORRU 2008 Incoming seed rain, a few saplings and live tree stumps may remain Few Very few Remnants remain as seed sources Absent within seed dispersal distances of the site Same as Level 4 Mostly small species dispersing small seeds Mostly gone Same as Level 4 High High Very high Mostly fertile, low erosion Erosion risk increasing Significant soil erosion Herbaceous weeds dominate Same as Level 3 Sparse, herbaceous weeds 3 4 5 Most degraded Degradation level 1 Least degraded 2 3 4 5 Most degraded Appropriate response for biodiversity conservation Protect from further disturbance – re- introduce any plant or animal species extirpated by logging; particularly key pollinators and seed dispersers. ANR – protect forest remnants and prevent hunting of seed-dispersing animals; replant a few primary forest tree species if absent. ANR and planting 20-30 framework tree species; protect remaining forest remnants and prevent hunting of seed- dispersing animals. Maximum diversity planting. Improve soil conditions by planting ‘nurse trees’ e.g. pioneer legumes – followed after a few years by thinning and maximum diversity planting. Appropriate response for economic yield Replacement planting with economic tree species removed by logging. Extractive reserves with sustainable harvesting of NWFPs. Ecotourism. Enrichment planting with economic tree species particularly those logged out. Extractive reserves with sustainable harvesting of NWFPs. Include economic species among framework trees planted. Ensure local people are well paid for tree planting and aftercare; analogue forestry; agroforestry. Agroforestry; mixed species plantations. Conventional plantations. Ensure that nurse trees yield economic income to local people when they are thinned. Select tree species that also yield economic products; or establish conventional plantations of one or a few high-value tree species capable of withstanding the degraded soil conditions. 162 8. Looking forward: conditions for success The RFD and DNP are the main government agencies involved in reforestation and forest restoration. They have four-year action plans. The latest action plan was formulated based on inputs and comments from various agencies of the MNRE, i.e. Departments of Forestry, Environmental Quality Promotion, Water Resources, and the Forestry Industry Organization. The action plans are formulated based on overall government policies corresponding with the Constitution, NESDPs and Environmental Management Plans on natural resource conservation and management. The reforestation activities involve land and seedling preparation, and planting. Another important part of reforestation is monitoring and evaluation. The involved agencies formally report achieved tree planting goals annually in terms of areas planted. Reports on tree performances and consequent ecological benefits e.g. biodiversity recovery are also needed as this is related to economic and social assessments of the efforts carried out. They can also be used for baseline, monitoring and evaluation reports for carbon sequestration, credits and eventually markets. For the 2012 fiscal year, the DNP’s budget was about US280 million, an increase of about 5 percent from the previous year. A total area of approximately 8 800 ha swamp forests, watershed forests, utilized forests, Royal Initiative forests, rattan forests, planting of Siamese rosewood [Dalbergia cochinchinensis] and Aquilaria crassna were to be restored. D. cochinchinensis and A. crassna have been illegally logged from the forests due to their high values. However, landscape restoration has never been explicitly stated in government policies and action plans of the implementing agencies. It is unlikely that plot-level tree plantings can achieve the full ecosystem benefits, dissimilar to what landscape restoration can provide. Corridors connecting small and fragmented wildlife populations are a benefit. Reducing the impact of some natural disasters, e.g. tsunamis, can be achieved from large-scale mangrove forest restoration. The National Economic and Social Development Board NESDB stated that a number of ‘immunities’ are needed in order to proceed with all the strategies in the 11th NESDP. For the Third Strategy Sustainable Management of Natural Resources and Environment, one of the immunities concerns community strength in management of natural resources and the environment. This shows that policy-makers recognize community management roles in this regard. Also, one of the four objectives is to create fair access to and utilization of natural resources. In addition, one of the aims is to increase the effectiveness of natural resource and environmental management so communities can live harmoniously with the forests. However, whether this will be translated into actions depends on the implementing agencies. Due to recent natural disasters, for example the catastrophic 2011 flood and some severe storms, which resulted in massive damage, the general public automatically puts the blame on the mismanagement, often by rural communities, of natural resources, particularly the watershed forests in the Northern part of the country. One of the ideas proposed by the general public to reduce the impacts of such disasters is to plant more trees. This is not new to Thailand as forests have been a standing issue for a long time and are often raised whenever disasters strike. The situation is ironic as marginal communities in and near forests and forest dwellers in or near protected areas are poor and need land for agriculture to produce food andor generate incomes. They often do not own the land, and as a result, they have no pronounced incentives to plant more trees. In recent years, marginal and rural communities have been recognized for their crucial roles in conserving and protecting natural resources such as forests. Consequently, they should be compensated because they lose their opportunities to utilize the land for food production. Globally, PES mechanisms have been implemented resulting in effective management of natural resources. Thailand can implement similar mechanisms. This should lead to equitable sharing of the benefits from forests. For Thailand, there are a handful of pre-PES and PES projects, for example, the work by the DNP in four national parks and one wildlife sanctuary http:www.unescap.org esdenvironmentpes 3rd-sea-workshop documents session1Pattanavibool.pdf, and at Doi Mae Salong Chiang Rai by the World Conservation Union http:www.iucn. orgnews_homepage news_by_date 2012?10165 Assessing-payments-for-ecosystem-services-PES-in-Doi-Mae-Salong- Northern-Thailand. The NESDB included a proposal on PES in the 11th NESDP as a way to generate income, by referring to ongoing global trends, for the stakeholders involved in guarding natural resources. The opportunity for generating income from carbon sequestration by trees is gaining more attention, considering its global ecological service for mitigating global warming. Local communities can add this into their rationale for planting more trees. However the transaction costs are forbidding, and as a result only a small number of projects qualify for the credits. The Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization http:www.tgo.or.thenglish has been facilitating this. Entering voluntary carbon markets can be an option. Another interesting incentive mechanism for tree protecting andor planting is the ‘Tree Bank’ of the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Co-operatives http:www.baac.or.thbaac_enindex.php, in which trees can be used as collateral by people seeking loans. This has created a new culture to protect andor plant more trees. However, this is not widely recognized, and is still fragmented. However, it can be a good starting point for more forest restoration undertakings at the landscape level. The private sector can also play an important role in financially supporting reforestation and forest restoration. Thai industries have been known for being environmentally unfriendly. Many industries and private companies have, as a consequence, been asked by society to care more about the environment. The decentralization of the executive administration into local administrative branches has also given local communities more control over their resources. At the same time, public companies are also moving to more environmentally-friendly business approaches, directly or indirectly. One popular activity undertaken by industries and companies is to create andor participate in tree planting via their corporate social responsibility programmes. However, these tree planting efforts have not reached their full potential for environmental benefits. As is often the case, the planting areas are fragmented, and there have rarely been follow ups to monitor tree survival and growth. Therefore, there is huge potential for companies and industries to join forces, as well as with the government, for scaling up the efforts on tree planting and monitoring.