Expansion of agricultural lands and construction of dams

89 4. Impacts of forest degradation

4.1 Impact on livelihoods

The degradation of natural resources is considered a major threat to rural livelihoods, sustainable agriculture and development in general. The most vulnerable group affected by deforestation and forest degradation is the landless rural poor, who depend on forests such as for hunting and gathering for their livelihoods. The other rural groups, such as farmers, small merchants, livestock owners and artisans who are better-off, are also affected either directly or indirectly with the deterioration of the environment such as soil and water quality, less productive farmlands. The impacts of forest degradation are much more severe in the Central dry zone, delta and mountainous areas as people from these areas have fewer opportunities for alternative livelihoods with industries, services, government employment and trade. A significant indicator of environmental degradation, particularly in the Central dry zone, is mass migration. As the environment becomes highly degraded and lands become unproductive, people from these areas migrate to other parts of the country or overseas.

4.2 Impact on the environment

Due to the effects of forest degradation and deforestation, the capacity of natural ecosystems to contribute to environmental quality has decreased and a number of plant and animal species have disappeared. Land degradation as a consequence of forest depletion, particularly soil erosion in upland agricultural areas and the country’s dry zones has become a serious problem. More than 30 percent of the country’s total cultivated land is estimated to be vulnerable to severe soil erosion, and this is increasing at an alarming rate. Human interventions aggravate these conditions, including excessive forest harvesting, monocropping and shifting cultivation. Soil erosion in the upland regions is primarily due to clearing of vegetative cover and farming on steep lands 10° or above. The government recognizes that immediate actions are needed to safeguard the stability and productivity of upland farms through extension support for soil conservation methods including vegetation restoration and provision of related technologies to farmers. However, if the decline in funding for forest conservation and rehabilitation measures is not reversed, the problem of land degradation and increasing trend of vulnerable farmland will continue. Deforestation and degradation when unchecked over time could lead to local climate change and desertification, particularly in areas where the original natural environment is harsh e.g. low rainfall, high temperature and poor soil fertility such as the Central dry zone of Myanmar.

4.3 Impact on biodiversity

Various forest types of Myanmar are inhabited by a vast array of plants and wildlife species. Conservation of these biological resources has been incorporated in the broader scope of nature and wildlife conservation which is regarded as one of the national priorities. Protection of soil, water, wildlife, biodiversity and the entire environment is identified as an important imperative in the 1995 Myanmar Forest Policy. Consequently, various wild plants and animals are protected and conserved through establishment of PAS and the Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law, 1994. The total extent of PAS was approaching 6 percent of the country’s total land area in 2012 and is still under expansion. However, the Indo-Myanmar ‘hotspot’ is highly threatened; it is likely to lose most plants and vertebrates as a result of continued forest cover loss Brooks et al. 2002. Throughout the hotspot, a combination of economic development and human population growth is placing increasing pressure on natural habitats and species populations.

4.4 Impact of forest managementgovernance

Following the loss of extensive areas of its natural forests and the impact of much more severely degraded land, the government recognized the failure of custodial forestry in the 1990s and this led to a search for alternative approaches. The state has realized the importance of people-based development to ensure sustainable forest resources for environmental, economic and social purposes. The Forest Policy 1997 provides the basic directions for public awareness raising and people’s participation, and the Community Forestry Instructions 1995 provide the basis for local community participation in forest management. In addition, in 2011, the state was apparently trying to reduce reliability on forest resources for development, including reducing logging and log exports, arranging alternative household energy for rural communities and creating non-forest- based alternative job opportunities for local communities. The last decade has seen increased commitment by the state to community-oriented forest management. 90 5. Implementation of forest restoration and rehabilitation initiatives

5.1 History of initiatives, strategies and techniques

5.1.1 Plantation establishment

Establishment of forest plantations has been seen as the main remedy to restore forest cover in the country. Plantations for commercial purposes, local and industrial use and watershed protection have been encouraged to fulfill domestic requirement, exports and environmental preservation. Compensatory plantations to enrich existing natural forests were initiated as early as the late 1850s. In the early 1970s, mass planting schemes were chosen due to the rapid rate of natural forest degradation and deforestation. The Myanmar Forest Policy, 1995 also encourages forest plantations in order to supply local and industrial use as well as to improve the natural environment. Four main types of plantations are classified by MOECAF – commercial, local supply, industrial and watershed. Under MOECAF, both the Forest Department and the DZGD are responsible for establishing them. The Forest Department has established all four major types of plantations but the DZGD has concentrated on establishment of local supply and watershed environmental conservation and restoration plantations in the Central dry zone. Forest plantation areas by types in 2000, 2005 and 2012 are shown in Table 7. Table 7. Forest plantations in Myanmar by year and type Sources: FAO 2010a; MOECAF 2012. Establishment of all four types of plantations has gradually increased over time. Commercial plantations mostly teak constitute the highest share, up to 48 percent of total plantations established in the country. Local supply plantations mostly village fuelwood plantations stand second at 25 percent, followed by watershed environmental conservation and restoration plantations and industrial plantations such as eucalyptus plantation for pulp and paper. Currently, MOECAF has a target to establish around 10 000 ha of forest plantations annually. In addition, although no target has been set, an estimated 8 000 ha of privately-owned commercial forest plantations have been established by private companies and an average 2 400 ha of community forest are established by communities every year.

5.1.2 Expansion of PFE area

A significant indicator of the state’s commitment to forest restoration and rehabilitation is the increase of PFE area following promulgation of the 1997 Forest Policy. PFE comprises RF, PPF and PAS, which were well protected and conserved under forest law in 1992. The 1995 Forest Policy set the targets of expanding RF to 30 percent of the total land area and setting aside no less than 5 percent of total land area as PAS up to 10 percent in the long term. Figure 3 shows the percentage of PFE area to total land area between 1980 and 2015. Figure 3. PFE area percent to total land area Source: MOECAF 2012. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 PFE 30.90 24.13 15 15 Classification Commercial Local supply Industrial use Watershed Total Area ha 371 355 197 209 50 394 77 408 696 366 share 53 29 7 11 100 Area ha 480 534 250 920 72 488 192 270 996 212 share 48 25 7 20 100 Area ha 396 263 254 460 64 581 134 566 849 870 share 46 30 8 16 100 2000 2012 2005