Forest area National budget
3.1 Direct causes
In Nepal, forest degradation is identified as a major environmental problem. Most of the forests in the mid-hills are under community management and are well managed Kanel 2004. Forests in the Terai, Shiwaliks and High Mountains are under severe pressure from biotic interference. In general, forests under government management face a high degree of uncertainty MoEST 2006. Crown cover is often taken as a proxy indicator to detect forest degradation. It may, however, not be a sufficient indicator to determine forest degradation. Canopy reduction will reduce carbon sink potential, but it may enhance watershed conservation and biodiversity. The understorey may remain intact. Conversely, loss of ground vegetation or understorey, which may not be detected, could also be a key degradation element, as it affects ecosystem resilience. Sharma and Suoheimo 1995 found that about 45 percent of trees in the Makawanpur and Rautahat districts are affected by rot diseases. Acharya et al. 2012 found degradation of existing forest stock resulting from repeated logging practices; for example the sal forest Shorea robusta used to be well stocked 60 percent basal area, but following repeated cuts, it became a Terai hardwood forest sal basal area 20 percent. The silvicultural practice of ‘selection felling’ is resulting in degradation of previous sal Terai hardwood forests to Terai hardwood Rautianien 1994. It can be inferred that the overexploitation of this species has gradually changed sal dominance. MoEST 2006 estimated that over 28 percent of the total land of the country is undergoing desertification Table 5. Table 5. Land area under degradation in Nepal Source: MoEST 2006. Besides poor forest management, several other drivers have been identified. They include: • Increasing demand for cultivable land – as Nepal has an overwhelmingly agrarian economy, with over 49 percent of the 29 million inhabitants living on 0.6 million ha of cultivable land in the hills, heavy encroachment on forest has continued. • Land acquired for development projects – forests have been targeted for conversion to agriculture, horticulture, plantations, industrial development, roads and other infrastructure development. • Increasing demand for fuelwood – of the total fuel required, 86 percent is fuelwood CBS 2010, the rest being animal dung and agricultural residues CBS 2011. While people are beginning to switch to other fuels, 65 percent of the population is still dependent on wood for their cooking needs CBS 2013. • Increasing demand for fodder and bedding material – the Nepalese agrarian economy is dependent on livestock rearing. According to CBS 2010 there were 7.19 million cattle, 4.83 million buffalo, 8.76 million goats, 0.79 million sheep and 1.06 million pigs. Livestock impose on forests in two ways, i.e. year-round grazing and lopping of trees for fodder. They are also responsible for overgrazing, one of the principal reasons for forest degradation. While this occurs throughout the year in the Terai, it is seasonal in high elevation pastures. About 40 percent of the high mountain forests have crown cover of less than 40 percent Acharya et al. 2012. • Increasing demand for timber – the rapidly growing population places increasing demand on timber for building houses. People exploit timber far beyond their actual needs. In the central Himalayas about 70 m 3 of valuable wood are logged per house, although less than 20 m 3 would suffice if properly and efficiently used Mauch 1974. • Invasive species – invasion of alien species has emerged as an important driver of forest degradation, particularly in the Terai and High Hills. Alien invasive species are proliferating and invading the natural environment leading to destruction and shrinkage of native flora and fauna. Many natural habitats have been degraded by species such as Mikania macrantha, Lantana camara, Parthenium spp. and Eichornia crassipes Paudel et al. 2007. Invasion and Land-use category Poorly-managed forest Poorly-managed sloping terraces Degraded rangelandopen land Area damaged by floods and landslides 1984-2003 Forest encroachment Total Degraded area million ha 2.100 0.290 0.647 0.106 0.119 3.262 Degraded land 36.03 10.00 37.00 0.72 2.04 28.24 Total land area million ha 5.828 2.969 1.750 11.551 5.828 11.551Parts
» forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Natural regeneration forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Agroforestry forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Ecological restoration forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» China forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Indonesia forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Myanmar forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Nepal forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Philippines forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Thailand forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Principles of CNFM Technical indicators with quantitative options
» Stand Operation Regime The five operational tasks of CNFM
» Commercial forest zone – timber production with no restriction on operation intensity.
» Species consideration for the MFFM plan
» Design of the FDT and operation models
» Brief cases of FLR in other regions
» Tentative results The five operational tasks of CNFM
» Causes of forest degradation
» Direct causes forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Underlying causes and agents of deforestation
» History of initiatives, strategies and techniques
» Major policies influencing rehabilitation initiatives in the New Order Era
» Industrial timber plantations HTI
» State forest rehabilitation programmes implemented by state-owned companies
» The FMU as an FLR approach: Sumbawa, Eastern Indonesia
» Gunungkidul District in Yogyakarta
» Conditions for success Broader socio-economic and political causes
» National strategy for forest and landscape restoration
» Permanent forest estate in 2002
» Forest landownership Broader socio-economic and political causes
» History of deforestation and forest degradation
» Deforestation rate Broader socio-economic and political causes
» Forest degradation Broader socio-economic and political causes
» Current status Broader socio-economic and political causes
» PFE status Broader socio-economic and political causes
» Direct causes Broader socio-economic and political causes
» Overexploitation and illegal logging
» Shifting cultivation forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Expansion of agricultural lands and construction of dams
» Demand on woodfuel forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Settlements and urbanization forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Population growth forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Poverty forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Weak law enforcement forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Conventional forest administration and lack of people’s participation
» Insufficient budget forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Impact on livelihoods No proper all-inclusive land-use policy
» Impact on biodiversity No proper all-inclusive land-use policy
» Impact of forest managementgovernance
» Plantation establishment forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Community forestry development forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Case study: Rehabilitation of Shin-ma-taung Hill in the Central dry zone of Myanmar
» General characteristics forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Deforestation and forest degradation in the area
» Rehabilitation efforts forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Reforming forest policies forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Reconciling global and national policies
» Public awareness forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Monitoring and evaluation forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Financing forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» The private sector National budget
» Location and topography National budget
» Land classification National budget
» Forest landownership National budget
» Current status of forest degradation and deforestation
» State of forest degradation and rehabilitation needs
» Forests under non-forest use
» Direct causes National budget
» Underlying causes National budget
» Environmental degradation in Nepal
» Technical approaches Other initiatives to implement forest restoration
» Economic assessment of different possible forest restorationrehabilitation strategies
» Case study: Chautara pine reforestation sites
» Conditions for success Forest restorationrehabilitation strategies
» Policy measures forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» National strategy for forest and landscape restoration: the way forward
» Brief overview Economic and market approaches
» Current status of forest degradation
» Economic impacts Underlying causes
» Environmental impacts Underlying causes
» Economic assessment of different forest restoration and rehabilitation techniques and approaches
» Conditions for success Techniques
» Reforms in major policy areas
» Consistency with current national policies
» Consistency with major international commitments
» Causes of forest degradation – direct causes
» Underlying causes Descriptive FLR strategies
» Environmental impact: extreme weather, change in soil resources
» Economic loss Descriptive FLR strategies
» Social consequences Descriptive FLR strategies
» A history of initiatives, strategies and techniques
» Forest area decline Forest restoration measures and methods
» Direct causes Forest restoration measures and methods
» Overharvesting of forests forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Infrastructure development forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Armed conflicts forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Underlying causes Forest fires
» Poverty and high population pressures
» Economic development policies forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Institutional weakness, weak law enforcement and financial deficits
» Conditions for success Finance
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