History of deforestation and forest degradation

85 3. Causes of forest degradation

3.1 Direct causes

3.1.1 Overexploitation and illegal logging

Under the Myanmar Selection System, the annual allowable cut AAC is the main indicator and controlling factor for sustainable management of forests. Timber harvesting basically followed the AAC until the 1980s. However between the 1980s and 2011, the forestry sector was required to set its own annual income target to contribute to the regional as well as national GDP. This rush for income required additional harvesting of immature trees and led to weakening of the well- developed forest management system. Consequently, annual timber production by the Myanmar Timber Enterprise MTE exceeded the prescribed AAC of that period. Figure 2 compares annual teak production and the prescribed AAC during the period 1985-2006. Figure 2. Teak extraction and prescribed AAC, 1985-2006 Source: UNEP 2009a. In addition to government harvesting over the AAC, Myanmar forests have faced additional pressure from illegal logging, removal of woodfuel and harvesting of NWFPs. Illicit logging is a common problem. Usually it is carried out by forest dwellers and small local merchants who take advantage of the remoteness of forest areas and weak law enforcement. The fundamental causes of illicit logging are, inter alia, increased demand for forest products, particularly timber and fuelwood, and high timber prices due to supply-demand imbalance and corruption. Many NGOs and civil society groups have pointed out that it might be very difficult to address illegal logging by needy communities in a comprehensive manner while overexploitation above the AAC is being carried out by the MTE, the government agency and its associated timber companies.

3.1.2 Shifting cultivation

Shifting cultivation or ‘taungya’ has been practised by ethnic minorities for a long time in hilly areas. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century long rotations were possible as the population in hilly areas was very sparse. However as the population rose, shifting cultivation gradually increased, and with shorter fallow periods damage to the natural environment has increased. Repeated slash-and burn-practices in the same area destroys valuable timber species and hinders their regeneration, causing soil erosion and depletion of soil fertility; ultimately it leads to forest degradation and deforestation. Today, an estimated 2 million families are involved in shifting cultivation, and nearly 30 percent of the total forest land about 9 500 000 ha is affected; another 200 000 ha are added to this total every year MOECAF 2012. However attempts have been made by MOAI and MOECAF to replace shifting cultivation with more stable and sustainable methods such as agroforestry, community forestry, horticulture and contour line cropping terracing.

3.1.3 Expansion of agricultural lands and construction of dams

The country’s net sown area increased rapidly from 8 910 000 ha in 1996 to 11 866 000 ha in 2009 MOAI 2008-2009. This is the result of the national land reclamation programme, juxtaposed by the development of irrigation facilities. From 1990-1991 to 2009-2010 the Irrigation Department of the MOAI constructed 262 dams and reservoirs for irrigation and flood protection, pumping stations and associated canals. Although these activities are mandatory to ensure food security for the increasing population, they resulted in clearing and conversion of forest lands into other land uses. In the meantime, forest cover decreased at an alarming rate at -1.17 percent per annum from 1990 to 2000 and -0.95 percent annually during the 2000-2010 period. Many critics argued that the lack of an integrated and comprehensive land-use policy or plan was the main reason. 500000 450000 400000 350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 Cubic tons 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Extraction AAC Year 86

3.1.4 Demand on woodfuel

Woodfuel fuelwood and charcoal is still a major source of household energy, particularly for the large rural population. Although urban households have more opportunities to use electricity or gas, there are still many limitations and blackouts in urban areas. Based on the household energy consumption of different types of energy for the period 1990-2010 and the projection for 2020 estimated by the Energy Planning Department; FAO 2009, the share percentage of fuelwood and charcoal consumption significantly decreased over time from 84 percent in 1990 to 69 percent in 2010, and is projected to be 58 percent in 2020. However, due to the growing population it is unlikely to decline in volume. MOECAF has estimated that woodfuel consumption per annum per household is about 1.4 cubic tons t 3 for urban households and 2.5 t 3 for rural households. With this rate and in combination with the increasing population rate, MOECAF estimates that demand on woodfuel will increase from 17.5 million t 3 in 2001 to 20 million t 3 in 2020. This woodfuel demand or removal is 12 to 13 times higher than the average annual harvesting of 300 000 tons of teak and 1 200 000 tons of hardwood total 1.5 million tons per annum for the period 2006-2012 MOECAF. MOECAF has estimated that 90 percent of total wood removal from forests is due to woodfuel production. People living in both rural and urban areas rely on forests to meet this huge woodfuel demand. This trend will continue unless household energy demand is substituted with other energy sources or sustainable forest management practices are implemented to meet rural wood energy needs.

3.1.5 Settlements and urbanization

As the population increased over time, demand for new homes and farming areas has also increased. For most of the rural poor who live in about 65 000 villages, the easiest option to meet this demand is encroachment on nearby forests. Some villages extend into the forests, and some even establish new subvillages hamlets in nearby forest areas. Every new household requires additional farmland or grazing land for livelihood needs. This has resulted in clearance of additional forest lands near their new households or hamlets. Table 6 shows the number of hamlets, households, populations and their farmlands settled in the RF and PPF of Myanmar in 2012. Table 6. Settlements in RF and PPF Source: Forest Department 2012b. Urbanization and industrial zone developments in and around large city areas such as Yangon, Mandalay and Dawai, are also leading to deforestation and forest degradation. Along with urbanization, demand for forest products such as fuelwood, charcoal, polesposts for households and infrastructure development has increased. These urban demands make long-term and intense negative impacts on nearby forests.

3.1.6 Mining

Mining is an important and promising sector for Myanmar’s economic growth MOM 2009-2010. Natural gas, oil, precious stones, gold and copper are the most important natural resources for local and foreign investors. The country is also well endowed with a variety of mineral resources such as tin, lead, zinc, tungsten, silver and iron. Industrial minerals such as barite, gypsum, limestone, dolomite, bentonite and fireclay are also found. Conversely, poorly managed and supported mining sites lead to environmental disturbances that extend well beyond the extent of mineralized areas. Mining activities, especially with open pit systems, usually convert green land to bare land that is often polluted with hazardous materials. They also contaminate air and water in nearby streams and rivers. In most mining sites of Myanmar, environmental considerations and operations to repair environmental damage, including forest degradation and deforestation, are lacking. Myanmar is now trying to set up environmental standards for mining activities, which are welcomed by environmental and forest conservation groups.

3.2 Underlying causes

3.2.1 Population growth

Myanmar has a relatively low population density compared with many countries in the ASEAN region. The 2005-2006 population was estimated at 55.4 million which is an increase from 40.78 million in 1990-1991. Population increase, especially the rural population, is of considerable concern, as they are highly dependent on forest resources, and directly influence fuelwood removal, illegal cutting, shifting cultivation, agricultural expansion and so forth, ultimately leading to deforestation and forest degradation. Number of hamlets 1 604 Total 33 983 Other land use 13 453 Land for farming 304 835 Land for households 12 695 Total population 894 266 Number of households 193 074 Settlements in RF PPF ha