Forest landownership Broader socio-economic and political causes
3.1 Direct causes
3.1.1 Overexploitation and illegal logging
Under the Myanmar Selection System, the annual allowable cut AAC is the main indicator and controlling factor for sustainable management of forests. Timber harvesting basically followed the AAC until the 1980s. However between the 1980s and 2011, the forestry sector was required to set its own annual income target to contribute to the regional as well as national GDP. This rush for income required additional harvesting of immature trees and led to weakening of the well- developed forest management system. Consequently, annual timber production by the Myanmar Timber Enterprise MTE exceeded the prescribed AAC of that period. Figure 2 compares annual teak production and the prescribed AAC during the period 1985-2006. Figure 2. Teak extraction and prescribed AAC, 1985-2006 Source: UNEP 2009a. In addition to government harvesting over the AAC, Myanmar forests have faced additional pressure from illegal logging, removal of woodfuel and harvesting of NWFPs. Illicit logging is a common problem. Usually it is carried out by forest dwellers and small local merchants who take advantage of the remoteness of forest areas and weak law enforcement. The fundamental causes of illicit logging are, inter alia, increased demand for forest products, particularly timber and fuelwood, and high timber prices due to supply-demand imbalance and corruption. Many NGOs and civil society groups have pointed out that it might be very difficult to address illegal logging by needy communities in a comprehensive manner while overexploitation above the AAC is being carried out by the MTE, the government agency and its associated timber companies.3.1.2 Shifting cultivation
Shifting cultivation or ‘taungya’ has been practised by ethnic minorities for a long time in hilly areas. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century long rotations were possible as the population in hilly areas was very sparse. However as the population rose, shifting cultivation gradually increased, and with shorter fallow periods damage to the natural environment has increased. Repeated slash-and burn-practices in the same area destroys valuable timber species and hinders their regeneration, causing soil erosion and depletion of soil fertility; ultimately it leads to forest degradation and deforestation. Today, an estimated 2 million families are involved in shifting cultivation, and nearly 30 percent of the total forest land about 9 500 000 ha is affected; another 200 000 ha are added to this total every year MOECAF 2012. However attempts have been made by MOAI and MOECAF to replace shifting cultivation with more stable and sustainable methods such as agroforestry, community forestry, horticulture and contour line cropping terracing.3.1.3 Expansion of agricultural lands and construction of dams
The country’s net sown area increased rapidly from 8 910 000 ha in 1996 to 11 866 000 ha in 2009 MOAI 2008-2009. This is the result of the national land reclamation programme, juxtaposed by the development of irrigation facilities. From 1990-1991 to 2009-2010 the Irrigation Department of the MOAI constructed 262 dams and reservoirs for irrigation and flood protection, pumping stations and associated canals. Although these activities are mandatory to ensure food security for the increasing population, they resulted in clearing and conversion of forest lands into other land uses. In the meantime, forest cover decreased at an alarming rate at -1.17 percent per annum from 1990 to 2000 and -0.95 percent annually during the 2000-2010 period. Many critics argued that the lack of an integrated and comprehensive land-use policy or plan was the main reason. 500000 450000 400000 350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 Cubic tons 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Extraction AAC YearParts
» forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Natural regeneration forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Agroforestry forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Ecological restoration forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» China forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Indonesia forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Myanmar forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Nepal forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Philippines forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Thailand forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Principles of CNFM Technical indicators with quantitative options
» Stand Operation Regime The five operational tasks of CNFM
» Commercial forest zone – timber production with no restriction on operation intensity.
» Species consideration for the MFFM plan
» Design of the FDT and operation models
» Brief cases of FLR in other regions
» Tentative results The five operational tasks of CNFM
» Causes of forest degradation
» Direct causes forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Underlying causes and agents of deforestation
» History of initiatives, strategies and techniques
» Major policies influencing rehabilitation initiatives in the New Order Era
» Industrial timber plantations HTI
» State forest rehabilitation programmes implemented by state-owned companies
» The FMU as an FLR approach: Sumbawa, Eastern Indonesia
» Gunungkidul District in Yogyakarta
» Conditions for success Broader socio-economic and political causes
» National strategy for forest and landscape restoration
» Permanent forest estate in 2002
» Forest landownership Broader socio-economic and political causes
» History of deforestation and forest degradation
» Deforestation rate Broader socio-economic and political causes
» Forest degradation Broader socio-economic and political causes
» Current status Broader socio-economic and political causes
» PFE status Broader socio-economic and political causes
» Direct causes Broader socio-economic and political causes
» Overexploitation and illegal logging
» Shifting cultivation forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Expansion of agricultural lands and construction of dams
» Demand on woodfuel forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Settlements and urbanization forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Population growth forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Poverty forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Weak law enforcement forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Conventional forest administration and lack of people’s participation
» Insufficient budget forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Impact on livelihoods No proper all-inclusive land-use policy
» Impact on biodiversity No proper all-inclusive land-use policy
» Impact of forest managementgovernance
» Plantation establishment forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Community forestry development forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Case study: Rehabilitation of Shin-ma-taung Hill in the Central dry zone of Myanmar
» General characteristics forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Deforestation and forest degradation in the area
» Rehabilitation efforts forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Reforming forest policies forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Reconciling global and national policies
» Public awareness forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Monitoring and evaluation forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Financing forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» The private sector National budget
» Location and topography National budget
» Land classification National budget
» Forest landownership National budget
» Current status of forest degradation and deforestation
» State of forest degradation and rehabilitation needs
» Forests under non-forest use
» Direct causes National budget
» Underlying causes National budget
» Environmental degradation in Nepal
» Technical approaches Other initiatives to implement forest restoration
» Economic assessment of different possible forest restorationrehabilitation strategies
» Case study: Chautara pine reforestation sites
» Conditions for success Forest restorationrehabilitation strategies
» Policy measures forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» National strategy for forest and landscape restoration: the way forward
» Brief overview Economic and market approaches
» Current status of forest degradation
» Economic impacts Underlying causes
» Environmental impacts Underlying causes
» Economic assessment of different forest restoration and rehabilitation techniques and approaches
» Conditions for success Techniques
» Reforms in major policy areas
» Consistency with current national policies
» Consistency with major international commitments
» Causes of forest degradation – direct causes
» Underlying causes Descriptive FLR strategies
» Environmental impact: extreme weather, change in soil resources
» Economic loss Descriptive FLR strategies
» Social consequences Descriptive FLR strategies
» A history of initiatives, strategies and techniques
» Forest area decline Forest restoration measures and methods
» Direct causes Forest restoration measures and methods
» Overharvesting of forests forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Infrastructure development forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Armed conflicts forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Underlying causes Forest fires
» Poverty and high population pressures
» Economic development policies forest landscape restoration for asia pacific forests 2016 04 eng
» Institutional weakness, weak law enforcement and financial deficits
» Conditions for success Finance
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