Forest landownership Broader socio-economic and political causes

85 3. Causes of forest degradation

3.1 Direct causes

3.1.1 Overexploitation and illegal logging

Under the Myanmar Selection System, the annual allowable cut AAC is the main indicator and controlling factor for sustainable management of forests. Timber harvesting basically followed the AAC until the 1980s. However between the 1980s and 2011, the forestry sector was required to set its own annual income target to contribute to the regional as well as national GDP. This rush for income required additional harvesting of immature trees and led to weakening of the well- developed forest management system. Consequently, annual timber production by the Myanmar Timber Enterprise MTE exceeded the prescribed AAC of that period. Figure 2 compares annual teak production and the prescribed AAC during the period 1985-2006. Figure 2. Teak extraction and prescribed AAC, 1985-2006 Source: UNEP 2009a. In addition to government harvesting over the AAC, Myanmar forests have faced additional pressure from illegal logging, removal of woodfuel and harvesting of NWFPs. Illicit logging is a common problem. Usually it is carried out by forest dwellers and small local merchants who take advantage of the remoteness of forest areas and weak law enforcement. The fundamental causes of illicit logging are, inter alia, increased demand for forest products, particularly timber and fuelwood, and high timber prices due to supply-demand imbalance and corruption. Many NGOs and civil society groups have pointed out that it might be very difficult to address illegal logging by needy communities in a comprehensive manner while overexploitation above the AAC is being carried out by the MTE, the government agency and its associated timber companies.

3.1.2 Shifting cultivation

Shifting cultivation or ‘taungya’ has been practised by ethnic minorities for a long time in hilly areas. Up to the middle of the nineteenth century long rotations were possible as the population in hilly areas was very sparse. However as the population rose, shifting cultivation gradually increased, and with shorter fallow periods damage to the natural environment has increased. Repeated slash-and burn-practices in the same area destroys valuable timber species and hinders their regeneration, causing soil erosion and depletion of soil fertility; ultimately it leads to forest degradation and deforestation. Today, an estimated 2 million families are involved in shifting cultivation, and nearly 30 percent of the total forest land about 9 500 000 ha is affected; another 200 000 ha are added to this total every year MOECAF 2012. However attempts have been made by MOAI and MOECAF to replace shifting cultivation with more stable and sustainable methods such as agroforestry, community forestry, horticulture and contour line cropping terracing.

3.1.3 Expansion of agricultural lands and construction of dams

The country’s net sown area increased rapidly from 8 910 000 ha in 1996 to 11 866 000 ha in 2009 MOAI 2008-2009. This is the result of the national land reclamation programme, juxtaposed by the development of irrigation facilities. From 1990-1991 to 2009-2010 the Irrigation Department of the MOAI constructed 262 dams and reservoirs for irrigation and flood protection, pumping stations and associated canals. Although these activities are mandatory to ensure food security for the increasing population, they resulted in clearing and conversion of forest lands into other land uses. In the meantime, forest cover decreased at an alarming rate at -1.17 percent per annum from 1990 to 2000 and -0.95 percent annually during the 2000-2010 period. Many critics argued that the lack of an integrated and comprehensive land-use policy or plan was the main reason. 500000 450000 400000 350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 Cubic tons 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Extraction AAC Year