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3.2.2 Poverty
Despite its wealth of natural resources, Myanmar remains a poor country with a Human Development Index ranking of 149 out of 187 countries. Myanmar’s population lives below the poverty line and the rural poor account for 87 percent
of total poverty. Poverty, forest and land degradation, and human-induced climate change are associated in a vicious cycle. Heavy dependence on forests due to poverty results in deforestation, land degradation and self-destruction of the
microenvironment as well as erratic climatic conditions. Again, severe environmental and climatic conditions cause greater poverty and more destruction.
3.2.3 Weak law enforcement
The new Myanmar Forest Law has been enacted since 1992 followed by the Forest Rules in 1995. Both were prepared in harmony with the Forest Policy, 1995. In addition, the Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural
Areas Law, 1994 was ratified in 1994. The Community Forestry Instructions CFI was also issued by the Forest Department in 1995.
One of the basic principles of the Forest Law is: • To safeguard against degradation and depletion of natural forests and to conduct afforestation in areas where
natural forests are depleted. However, in reality the provisions of all forestry-related forest laws, rules and instructions cannot be fully enforced due to:
• Conflict of interests between forest sustainability and income from the forestry sector for national development; • Policy inconsistency between the forestry sector and other economic sectors including agriculture, livestock and
mining; • Demand on forest products is still increasing and there are very few measures to replace them with alternatives e.g.
natural gas instead of woodfuel and steel, brick and cement instead of timber; • Poverty forces local communities to defy the forest laws to make additional income from forests;
• Inadequate salaries and facilities encourage authorities to become involved in corruption. The same phenomenon can also be observed in all other interrelated sectors, providing room for all illegal or inappropriate
activities that lead to destruction of forests and the natural environment.
3.2.4 Conventional forest administration and lack of people’s participation
Following the British annexation of lower Myanmar, systematic forest administration began in 1856 under police-style control and surveillance of forest areas, aiming at long-term commercial timber production from reserved forests. The
forest reservation process severely constrained local communities from continuing their traditional free access to forests. Although rights and privileges for forest dependents and forest dwellers were mentioned in forest working plans, all of
these management plans and regulations were conducted in a top-down fashion, without any negotiations and consensus with local communities. Police-style forest management continued after independence in 1948, and during almost half a
century of authoritarian rule 1962-2011, conditions deteriorated. Government policy favoured exploitation of forests for economic growth that was not in consonance with both scientific management and local requirements. This separation
of local people from the forest administration led the former to become defiant and undertake activities labeled as illegal. Misunderstanding and mistrust between authorities and communities over time led to strife and resulted in the failure of
forest administration; this further exacerbated forest degradation and deforestation.
3.2.5 Insufficient budget
Myanmar’s current national accounting system does not report environmental-related expenditure as a separate element. Financial resources for environment and natural resource management are allocated to sectoral ministries or agencies.
According to the national budget’s sectoral breakdown in 2013-2014, out of total expenditure of US7 864.5 million, only US519 million about 6.6 percent was allocated to institutions most closely linked to the management of natural
resources agriculture, forestry, livestock, fisheries. Under MOECAF, the highest expenditure nearly 97 percent in 2012- 2013 went to the MTE, which deals with timber extraction and export. However the MTE does not expend its resources
for rehabilitation and conservation. The combined expenditure of the departments FD+DZGD+ECD which are responsible for forest conservation and reforestation efforts is only about 3 percent of the total expenditure of the whole ministry.
Moreover, average Overseas Development Assistance ODA received by Myanmar is only about US2.00 per capita per annum. Under the circumstances, the amount allocated to the environment, forestry etc. is practically non-existent. Under
such financial limitations, MOECAF can barely fulfill its ambitious targets on forest conservation and rehabilitation through the FD, DZGD and ECD.
3.2.6 No proper all-inclusive land-use policy
One policy-related issue which apparently hinders forest conservation and rehabilitation efforts is arbitrary land use. The absence of clear land-use policy and planning has several impacts on forest management including loss of forest cover and
low productivity.
88 Although forest policy includes statements about land use, it is a cross-cutting issue with other sectors such as agriculture,
livestock, mining, settlements and urbanization. At the national level, an all-inclusive and comprehensive land-use policy has not been developed. Every sector believes that its plans and targets are very important for the livelihoods and well
being of the people and the nation, and thus compete for the same plots of land. In most cases, the forestry sector is the loser, because forest conservation and rehabilitation cannot generate impressive short-term results compared to other
alternative land uses such as agriculture, mining and industrial zones.
Formation of the National Environmental Conservation Committee NECC in 2011 has been seen as development in the right direction to resolve this longstanding land-use conflict. The committee is composed of 23 relevant ministries and
mandated to achieve harmony and balance between socio-economy, natural resources and the environment through the integration of environmental considerations into the development process.
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4. Impacts of forest degradation
4.1 Impact on livelihoods
The degradation of natural resources is considered a major threat to rural livelihoods, sustainable agriculture and development in general. The most vulnerable group affected by deforestation and forest degradation is the landless rural
poor, who depend on forests such as for hunting and gathering for their livelihoods. The other rural groups, such as farmers, small merchants, livestock owners and artisans who are better-off, are also affected either directly or indirectly
with the deterioration of the environment such as soil and water quality, less productive farmlands.
The impacts of forest degradation are much more severe in the Central dry zone, delta and mountainous areas as people from these areas have fewer opportunities for alternative livelihoods with industries, services, government employment
and trade. A significant indicator of environmental degradation, particularly in the Central dry zone, is mass migration. As the environment becomes highly degraded and lands become unproductive, people from these areas migrate to other
parts of the country or overseas.
4.2 Impact on the environment
Due to the effects of forest degradation and deforestation, the capacity of natural ecosystems to contribute to environmental quality has decreased and a number of plant and animal species have disappeared. Land degradation as a consequence
of forest depletion, particularly soil erosion in upland agricultural areas and the country’s dry zones has become a serious problem. More than 30 percent of the country’s total cultivated land is estimated to be vulnerable to severe soil erosion,
and this is increasing at an alarming rate. Human interventions aggravate these conditions, including excessive forest harvesting, monocropping and shifting cultivation.
Soil erosion in the upland regions is primarily due to clearing of vegetative cover and farming on steep lands 10° or above. The government recognizes that immediate actions are needed to safeguard the stability and productivity of
upland farms through extension support for soil conservation methods including vegetation restoration and provision of related technologies to farmers. However, if the decline in funding for forest conservation and rehabilitation measures is
not reversed, the problem of land degradation and increasing trend of vulnerable farmland will continue.
Deforestation and degradation when unchecked over time could lead to local climate change and desertification, particularly in areas where the original natural environment is harsh e.g. low rainfall, high temperature and poor soil fertility such as
the Central dry zone of Myanmar.
4.3 Impact on biodiversity
Various forest types of Myanmar are inhabited by a vast array of plants and wildlife species. Conservation of these biological resources has been incorporated in the broader scope of nature and wildlife conservation which is regarded as one of the
national priorities. Protection of soil, water, wildlife, biodiversity and the entire environment is identified as an important imperative in the 1995 Myanmar Forest Policy. Consequently, various wild plants and animals are protected and conserved
through establishment of PAS and the Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law, 1994. The total extent of PAS was approaching 6 percent of the country’s total land area in 2012 and is still under expansion.
However, the Indo-Myanmar ‘hotspot’ is highly threatened; it is likely to lose most plants and vertebrates as a result of continued forest cover loss Brooks et al. 2002. Throughout the hotspot, a combination of economic development and
human population growth is placing increasing pressure on natural habitats and species populations.
4.4 Impact of forest managementgovernance
Following the loss of extensive areas of its natural forests and the impact of much more severely degraded land, the government recognized the failure of custodial forestry in the 1990s and this led to a search for alternative approaches. The
state has realized the importance of people-based development to ensure sustainable forest resources for environmental, economic and social purposes. The Forest Policy 1997 provides the basic directions for public awareness raising and
people’s participation, and the Community Forestry Instructions 1995 provide the basis for local community participation in forest management.
In addition, in 2011, the state was apparently trying to reduce reliability on forest resources for development, including reducing logging and log exports, arranging alternative household energy for rural communities and creating non-forest-
based alternative job opportunities for local communities. The last decade has seen increased commitment by the state to community-oriented forest management.
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