105 economic value of the Nepalese agrarian economy, immigration from India and high growth rates led to this decline in
forest to population ratio CBS 2011.
1.5 Land classification
Land-use classifications are given in Table 3 CBS 2012. The figures indicate that land under cultivation and ‘other land uses’ has increased at the expense of forest areas. About 86 percent of the total area of Nepal Table 4 is the fragile hill
ecosystems High Mountains, High Hills, Mid-hills and Shiwaliks, which need ecosensitive planning and management.
Table 3. Land-use pattern by type, 19781979-2001
WESC 2010; LRMP 1986 DFRS 1999
Table 4. Land use by agroclimatic zone, 1986
Source: CBS 1998.
1.6 Forest landownership
Nepal’s forests are broadly divided into two ownership categories, national and private. National forests are further categorized into government-managed forests; community forests; leasehold forests; religious forests; and protected
forests. A new community approach to productive forest management is ‘collaborative forests’. Community, leasehold and religious forests are managed by local communities, also called forest user groups FUGs, while government-managed and
protected forests are directly administered and protected by government institutions.
Twenty-seven percent of national forests 1 652 654.18 ha has been handed over as community forests to 17 685 FUGs DoF 2012. Most of the community forests are in the hills. The community forestry programme covers several forest
types, categorized into nine categoriesforest types, of which Shorea robusta accounts for about 30 percent followed by Pinus roxburghii 15 percent. Schima castanopsis, an important multiple-product yielder covers about 13 percent of the
hills. Topographically and physiographically, community forests are well distributed over the country. Leasehold forest is national forest handed over on a leasehold basis to any institution established under prevailing laws, forest-based industry
or community stewardship. Leasehold forestry specifically targets the poorest and most marginal households. The average area of a leasehold forest is 3 to 20 ha, and the lease period is 40 years, extendable for another 40 years. Some 9 000 ha
are now registered as privately-owned forest CBS 2011.
Types of land
Cultivated land Non-cultivated land
Forest Shrubland
Grassland Other land
Snow-capped area, rocky surfaces, others
Total Area in ha
19781979 19851986
2001 Area
2 969 400 986 900
5 612 400 694 000
1 755 900 2 729 800
14 748 400
20.1 6.7
38.1 4.7
11.9 18.5
100.0 Area
3 052 000 998 000
5 518 000 706 000
1 745 000 2 729 000
2 729 000
14 748 000
20.7 6.8
37.4 4.8
11.8 18.5
16.3
100.0 Area
3 090 780 1 030 390
4 268 200 1 560 110
1 766 160 2 619 800
14 718 100
21.0 7.0
29.0 10.6
12.0 17.8
100.0
Land use area in
Agriculture Forest afforestation
Pasturemeadow Shrub- degraded land
Non-agricultural use Other uses
Total
Agroclimatic zone area in 000 ha High
Mountains
7.8 0.3 154.5 3
884.8 51 66.7 9
1.9 0.2 2 233.8 82
3 349.5 23 23
High Hills
244.4 8 1 639.0 30
508.0 29 175.7 25
147.7 14.8 244.5 9
2 959.3 20 20
Mid-hills
1 224.6 40 1 806.4 33
279.6 16 406.6 58
666.7 66.8 59.5 2
4 443.4 30 30
Shiwaliks
268.0 8.7 1 438.4 26
16.3 1 30.8 4
57.5 5.8 74.8 3
1 885.8 13 13
Terai
1 307.9 43 474.4 8
58.0 3 29.2 4
124.3 12.4 116.7 4
2 110.5 14 14
Total
3 052.7 5 512.7
1 746.7 709.0
998.1 2 729.3
14 748.5 20.7
37.4 11.8
4.8 6.8
18.5 100
106 About 20 percent of the forest area is under national parks and conservation protection which largely excludes any public
use. The protected area system includes ten national parks, three wildlife reserves, six conservation areas, one hunting reserve and 12 buffer zones ICIMODMOEST 2007; DoF 2012.
1.7 History of deforestation and forest degradation
The Himalayan region is one of the most fragile mountain ranges in the world and is increasingly being threatened by large-scale human activities. Extensive deforestation and intensive farming on steep slopes and heavy population
pressure on natural resources have resulted in overall environmental degradation Shengji and Sharma 1998. Most of the deforestation and degradation took place in the Shiwaliks and Terai; during 1965-1980, the losses amounted to 15.1 and
24.4 percent, respectively. Still, virtually all the forests in Nepal have been thinned during the last ten to 30 years; much of the mountain regions was cleared earlier in history.
1.8 Current status of forest degradation and deforestation
Forests play a vital role in economic, social and environmental sectors in Nepal. They are essential resources for daily subsistence of the rural poor. More than 86 percent of the population depends on forests for livelihood and socio-
economic development. Forest degradation and deforestation pose a serious problem in Nepal.
Clearing of forest land for resettlement, roads, infrastructure and other development activities as well as encroachment, illicit felling and excessive grazing are adversely affecting the extent, productivity and sustainability of forest resources
NPC 1998. Major causes of change in forest cover in Nepal appear to be expansion of subsistence agriculture and large economic development programmes involving resettlement FAO 1997.
The pattern of forest degradation changed after national forests were handed over to communities with management responsibilities. Currently, the forests in the hills have improved, primarily due to the community forestry programme.
Another factor that has eased pressure on forests is the migration of many people overseas who seek better employment. Estimates state that some 14 percent of the mid-hill population and 6 percent in the Terai have been affected by the
phenomenon.
Owing to remittances, dependents have moved to urban areas, and with the reduction in labour, many farmlands, especially in the hills, have been replaced by trees via natural regrowth.
Nepal’s forestry sector is characterized by its somewhat contradictory achievements and weaknesses. On the one hand Nepal has, for the last three decades, successfully implemented a large-scale and globally-recognized community forestry
programme that has brought more than 27.4 percent of the country’s forest area under community management and has provided livelihood benefits for more than 2.1 million people, including many poor and forest-dependent households.
This participatory programme has brought more than 1.7 million ha of previously degraded forest under sustainable management resulting in better forest condition, increased availability of forest products and improved ecosystem services.
These groups, through co-management, generate cash incomes which they utilize for a range of community development activities and also to create local employment DoF 2013.
107
2. Current status of landforest cover
2.1 State of forest degradation and rehabilitation needs
The forest area has declined since the 1940s but began a positive upswing with the implementation of community forestry from the 1990s onwards. In general however, large tracts of former forest are now under shrubland which has increased
in size. The total forest area in the Terai zone was 1.4 million ha with an annual deforestation rate of about 1.3 percent as against the previous rate of 3.9 percent Tables 1 and 2 for the period 1978-1979 to 1985-1986. The DoF 2005
conducted a study of 20 Terai districts between 1991 and 2001, which estimated that the rate of change of forest land was -0.06 percent. However, there was a positive change in forest cover in six districts DoF 2005 and the protected areas
of the Terai districts WECS 2010. To plan for rehabilitation, it is safe to assume that shrubland can be targeted. According to the recent NFI, 1.56 million ha of scrubland and degraded forest need to be rehabilitated. Various techniques and efforts
can be underscored here but the major issue is that degraded forest could be rejuvenated through proper application of silvicultural techniques or plantations depending on the state of degradation.
2.2 Forests under non-forest use
In the aforesaid study by the DoF for the period 1991-2001, it was found that the Terai districts experienced a minimum loss of forest land, estimated to be 0.08 percent per annum. The results were confirmed by findings of a positive change
in forest cover in the protected areas of the Terai districts WECS 2010.
According to the most recent NFI 19931994, 1.7 million ha 12 percent are grassland, 3.0 million ha 21 percent farmland and about 1.0 million ha 7 percent uncultivated lands. In sum, of the 4.27 million ha of forest, about 51 percent
2.18 million ha is under forest use and the rest is under non-forest use DFRS 1999.
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3. Causes of forest degradation
3.1 Direct causes
In Nepal, forest degradation is identified as a major environmental problem. Most of the forests in the mid-hills are under community management and are well managed Kanel 2004. Forests in the Terai, Shiwaliks and High Mountains are
under severe pressure from biotic interference. In general, forests under government management face a high degree of uncertainty MoEST 2006.
Crown cover is often taken as a proxy indicator to detect forest degradation. It may, however, not be a sufficient indicator to determine forest degradation. Canopy reduction will reduce carbon sink potential, but it may enhance watershed
conservation and biodiversity. The understorey may remain intact. Conversely, loss of ground vegetation or understorey, which may not be detected, could also be a key degradation element, as it affects ecosystem resilience.
Sharma and Suoheimo 1995 found that about 45 percent of trees in the Makawanpur and Rautahat districts are affected by rot diseases. Acharya et al. 2012 found degradation of existing forest stock resulting from repeated logging practices;
for example the sal forest Shorea robusta used to be well stocked 60 percent basal area, but following repeated cuts, it became a Terai hardwood forest sal basal area 20 percent.
The silvicultural practice of ‘selection felling’ is resulting in degradation of previous sal Terai hardwood forests to Terai hardwood Rautianien 1994. It can be inferred that the overexploitation of this species has gradually changed sal
dominance. MoEST 2006 estimated that over 28 percent of the total land of the country is undergoing desertification Table 5.
Table 5. Land area under degradation in Nepal
Source: MoEST 2006.
Besides poor forest management, several other drivers have been identified. They include:
• Increasing demand for cultivable land – as Nepal has an overwhelmingly agrarian economy, with over 49
percent of the 29 million inhabitants living on 0.6 million ha of cultivable land in the hills, heavy encroachment on forest has continued.
• Land acquired for development projects – forests have been targeted for conversion to agriculture, horticulture,
plantations, industrial development, roads and other infrastructure development.
• Increasing demand for fuelwood – of the total fuel required, 86 percent is fuelwood CBS 2010, the rest being
animal dung and agricultural residues CBS 2011. While people are beginning to switch to other fuels, 65 percent of the population is still dependent on wood for their cooking needs CBS 2013.
• Increasing demand for fodder and bedding material – the Nepalese agrarian economy is dependent on
livestock rearing. According to CBS 2010 there were 7.19 million cattle, 4.83 million buffalo, 8.76 million goats, 0.79 million sheep and 1.06 million pigs. Livestock impose on forests in two ways, i.e. year-round grazing and
lopping of trees for fodder. They are also responsible for overgrazing, one of the principal reasons for forest degradation. While this occurs throughout the year in the Terai, it is seasonal in high elevation pastures. About 40
percent of the high mountain forests have crown cover of less than 40 percent Acharya et al. 2012.
• Increasing demand for timber – the rapidly growing population places increasing demand on timber for building
houses. People exploit timber far beyond their actual needs. In the central Himalayas about 70 m
3
of valuable wood are logged per house, although less than 20 m
3
would suffice if properly and efficiently used Mauch 1974.
• Invasive species – invasion of alien species has emerged as an important driver of forest degradation, particularly
in the Terai and High Hills. Alien invasive species are proliferating and invading the natural environment leading to destruction and shrinkage of native flora and fauna. Many natural habitats have been degraded by species such
as Mikania macrantha, Lantana camara, Parthenium spp. and Eichornia crassipes Paudel et al. 2007. Invasion and
Land-use category
Poorly-managed forest Poorly-managed sloping terraces
Degraded rangelandopen land Area damaged by floods and
landslides 1984-2003 Forest encroachment
Total
Degraded area million ha
2.100 0.290
0.647 0.106
0.119 3.262
Degraded land
36.03 10.00
37.00 0.72
2.04 28.24
Total land area million ha
5.828 2.969
1.750 11.551
5.828 11.551
