23 Partnership arrangements with communities have evolved over time, with collaborative arrangements between forest
occupants and the government for the restoration of degraded and denuded areas e.g. the Family Approach to Reforestation, the Communal Tree Farm. The arrangements were not clear, until the 25-year certificate of stewardship
tenure system was created, which was the precursor of the Community-Based Forest Management Program of 2009. The 1997 Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act had a strong influence and moved forestry towards community-based management,
along with recognition of indigenous peoples’ rights over ancestral lands. The principal forest policies and initiatives for influencing forest restoration are given in Box 8.
The evolution of forest policies clearly demonstrates that originally concerns targeted restoration of degraded forests by establishing industrial timber plantations. Although they were considered to be technically sound, these government-
led initiatives were not entirely successful. Only with the implementation of community-based forestry, with appropriate ownership rights for communities, has stabilization and positive increase of forest cover resulted.
3.4.6 Thailand
Forest restoration approaches in Thailand have mainly focused on industrial plantation development although some enrichment plantings have been done in conservation areas. These industrial timber plantations were mainly established
by state agencies such as the Forest Industry Organization and the private sector. In addition, the Royal Forest Department RFD has also promoted community forestry development by promoting the use of fast-growing trees in private farm
holdings. A simplified chronology of forest restoration is given in Box 9. It demonstrates the shifts from indigenous species to fast-growing exotics, the growth of pulp wood plantations and the use of wood from old rubber trees as an important
source of furniture timber.
Box8.Philippines:Majorpoliciesandinitiativesforforestrehabilitation
Policies and laws which support FLR approaches in various management units or watershed ecosystem units include: • Revised Forestry Code Presidential Decree 705; 1975 – although dated, the law has provided the basis for the
rehabilitation of open and degraded forest lands with development of industrial plantations, tree farms and agroforestry; it has promoted their implementation with an incentive package.
• National Integrated Protected Areas Systems Law 1992 – protected areas under this law are considered as ‘set asides’ for protection, conservation, development, regulation and management of biodiversity and ecosystem
services. • Community-Based Forest Management Program Executive Order No.263; 1995 – this programme provides
the means for restoringrehabilitating open and degraded forest lands by communities, with usufruct rights, possessory and custodial rights, and overall management of the lands.
• Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act 1997 – these land and resource management units are to be managed using traditional knowledge, attitudes and practices.
• Master Plan for Forestry Development 2003 – one strategic policy measure is forest expansion, to be achieved through afforestationrestoration in available barren and degraded lands, deforested areas and marginal lands,
and to further extend tree planting to farmlands, grazing lands, recreation areas, and to support expansion of community forestry, farm forestry etc.
• Promoting Sustainable Forest Management Executive Order No. 318; 2004 – this decree provides the guiding principle for sustainable forest management, with priority for rehabilitation and protection. It provides
incentives for the private sector’s participation in forest development. • The National Greening Program Executive Order No. 26; 2011 – a massive forest restoration programme was
announced in February 2011 to grow 1.5 billion trees over 1.5 million ha from 2011 to 2016. This programme has strategies that cover climate change mitigation, poverty reduction and timber production.
Source: Guiang and Aragon see p. 125
Box9.AchronologyofforestrestorationeffortsinThailand
Policies and laws which support FLR approaches in various management units or watershed ecosystem units include: • 1906-1965 – planting indigenous commercial species teak, Pterocarpus, Dalbergia etc. as compensation for
timber cut from natural forests. • 1965-1975 – planting pines and acacias for protection of degraded watershed areas; similar species were used
for commercial plantations in the lowlands. • 1975-1978 – plantations of fast-growing species eucalypts, acacias, Peltophorum etc. for regreening and
24 Prior to 1985, forest policy was mainly expressed through legislative acts. The first comprehensive National Forest Policy was
adopted in 1985. The national tree cover objective was set at 40 percent 15 percent protection and 25 percent production and the policy promoted the principles of sustainable forest management; measures were proposed for controlling shifting
cultivation, forest fires and forest clearance by ethnic minorities. Restoration for industrial wood production was stressed. A resettlement programme was also created for forest dwellers which allowed them to engage in commercial restoration
of degraded forest. However, the policy could not address deforestation, and following severe floods in 1988, a logging ban in natural forests was introduced in 1989. The 7th National Economic and Social Development Plan reversed the target
forest cover of 40 percent aimed at timber production with one that allocated 25 percent of forests for protection and 15 percent for production. While the policy and related instruments favour protection and conservation, decentralization
and public participation in policy planning and management of natural resources remain constrained. Nevertheless, in 1991 the RFD developed a Community Forestry Bill to facilitate local community involvement in forest management. The
bill, despite several revisions, has never been approved, because of amendments made to it that would ultimately lead to the eviction of thousands of forest-dwelling communities. This failure has contributed to and partly explains the continued
conflicts between people and authorities over forest-use rights and the lack of any increase in the country’s forest cover.
3.4.7 Viet Nam
Viet Nam has built a substantial reputation for its forest restoration work. In the 1950s, it carried out scattered tree planting, and it has been claimed that between 1960 and 1985, about 3.6 billion trees were planted. In 1975, the World
Food Programme, among its various programmes, also provided material for developing 450 000 ha of plantations; farmers were allowed to choose their own species for their smallholdings. In the 1990s, two major forest restoration programmes
were initiated. Program 327 also called the Greening the Barren Hills Program rehabilitated open lands and barren hills, and protected existing forests so natural regeneration could restore the sites. This resulted in about 400 000 ha of new
plantations and 300 000 ha of regenerated forests; this work was pursued in integration with rural development Sikor and Apel 1998. In 1998, the country initiated the 5MHRP and this lasted till 2010. Close to 1.2 million ha of protection
forests and special-use forests were restored, as well as about 0.5 million ha of production forest plantations. As a result, forest cover increased from 33.2 percent in 1999 to 35.8 percent in 2003, and to 44.0 percent in 2010 FAO 2010 a,b.
The forest restoration techniques included several forms of plantations, agroforestry and rehabilitation of natural forests through natural regeneration and enrichment planting. Many reasons have been provided for the exceptional success in
Viet Nam Box 10. A key reason appears to be because of the emphasis given to ensuring participation by local people, involving them in planning and ensuring they received financial benefits from their work. Success is also likely to have been
enhanced because of the strong interest and monitoring by officials in provincial and national agencies.
Box10.ReasonsforthesuccessofforestrestorationworkinVietNam
• The social benefits included additional cash income and savings for local people, resettlement and training in restoration techniques, together with improvements in their livelihoods and stable prices for wood.
• The restoration work involved active participation of local people and the authorities, active involvement and support of households, and strong interest from national authorities.
• Close monitoring by provincial managers and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development officials. • The use of appropriate techniques and adequate and timely funding.
• The investment method for afforestation was in line with prevailing natural and socio-economic conditions.
Source: De Jong et al. 2006
reclaiming of encroached forest reserves. • 1978-1987 – planting trees for fuelwood.
• 1987-1992 – development of eucalypt plantations for pulp production by large private companies. • 1993-1998 – restoration work to cover watershed conservation and degraded forests.
• 1999 onwards – rubber was introduced early, but its planting was expanded through a new programme
launched by the Department of Agriculture in 2004; timber from old rubber trees meets the needs of the furniture industry substantially.
• 1999-2005 – promotion of the role of the private sector and local communities in forest restoration; government- funded plantations afforestation, restoration by forest concessionaires, Forest Industry Organization etc. have
reached about 1.1 million ha; restoration through social forestry was promoted in the Northeastern region with eucalypts, neem, Pterocarpus, acacia and teak.
Source: Wongpakattanawong et al. see p. 149
