Design of the FDT and operation models

48 Toxicodendron verniciflum Schima superba Ficus esquiroliana Liquidamba formosana Schefflera minutistellata Cunninghamia lanceolata Vernicia fordii Mesua ferrea Styrax tonkinensis Michelia hedyosperma Castanopsis hystrix Erythrophleum fordii Mytilaria laosensis Manglietia glauca Quercus griffithii Pinus massoniana Tree species 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Tree numberha Figure 5. Species composition of a Pinus massoniana stand showing enrichment after eight years’ transformation from pure to mixed forest through both enrichment planting Mytilaria laoensis, Castanopsis fissa, Castanopsis hystrix and identifyingprotecting natural regeneration Figure 6. The species composition of a Cunninghamia lanceolata stand is clearly enriched after eight years’ transformation from pure to mixed forest through both enrichment planting Mytilaria laoensis, Castanopsis fissa, Castanopsis hystrix and identifyingprotecting natural regeneration. Concerning all trees with diameter over 5 cm, species number reached 16 with total tree number of 902ha for Pinus massoniana forest, and 18 with total tree number of 1 438ha for Cunninghamia lanceolata forest. Vernicia fordii Liquidamba formosana Ficus virens Macarange deheiculata Schima wallichii Saplum sebiferum Schima superba Toxicodendron verniciflum Schefflera minutistellata Alnus lanata Mesua ferrea Manglietia glauca Michelia hedyosperma Mytilaria laosensis Erythrophleum fordii Castanopsis hystrix Quercus griffithii Cunninghamia lanceolata Tree species 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Tree numberha 49 4. Policy and participatory forestry processes in China As a vast land with a huge population and diverse traditions, participatory processes in forestry in China are heavily dependent upon forest protection and ecological improvement while simultaneously supporting local livelihoods. The Chinese Government has formally approved and started to implement the Six Key Forestry Development Programs the Natural Forest Conservation Program, Key Shelterbelt Construction Program, Program for Transforming Farmland into Forests, Desertification Control Program, Conservation of Biodiversity and Nature Reserve Program and Establishment of Fast-Growing Timber Plantations since the 1990s. These six programmes encompass 97 percent of China’s regions in terms of counties, and signal the end of the timber only-oriented forestry era, and the beginning of forest ecosystem restoration and multifunctional forestry in China. In 1998, in an effort to promote forest management activities to prevent forest destruction and further deterioration, the Chinese Government established the National Forest Conservation Program NFCP, which articulated the new forest policy. The central government invested some 17 billion yuan US2.125 billion during 1998 to 2000 for the NFCP Li 2004, and further operation in the second phase 2010-2020 aimed at increasing an additional 600 000 ha in the area, 290 000 000 m 3 stock of forests and providing 443 200 job positions in the target regions. In 1999, another massive programme – the Key Shelterbelt Construction Program – was initiated for the restoration of forest and grassland in Northwestern arable areas where slopes exceed 25° or desertification poses a threat. This programme will cover 22 provinces, and most of them are concentrated in the western part of China. Within the next ten years, this programme is intended to convert an additional 5.33 million ha of marginal farmland to forest land for soil erosion control and to regenerate an additional 39 million ha of forest plantations and natural forests in degraded areas SFA 2010. In this programme, the participatory cost-sharing policy is a core component that involves farmers, their families, researchers and local government officials in addressing forestry problems; scientific cooperation is designed to improve communication between government officials and farmers. Since 2003, a programme for transforming farmland into forests or grassland known as ‘Grain for Green’ has been launched in China. It covers a trial area in 17 provinces and targets control of 22.67 million ha of land affected by soil erosion and 26.67 million ha of sand-affected areas by 2010. The central government offers compensation to farmers who ceded their degraded farmlands for forest restoration; the compensation is intended to equate to the maximum quantity 2.25 tonnes foodhayear they would have obtained from the land, and also provides financial support to cover the cost of reforestation 750 yuanhayear and maintenance 300 yuanhayear. The compensation in the form of grain and cash will last for eight years with the understanding that farmers will be able to generate income from forest production or service functions subsequently. The process is participatory and collaborative, with local communities providing land and being responsible for tending the seedlings. As the first stage of forest restoration, the Six Key Forestry Development Programs incorporated participatory forestry development from the outset and the efforts are still ongoing. The second stage of forest restoration is characterized by a general forestry policy of compensation for public and ecologically beneficial forests. In 2009, with governmental support, the State Forestry Administration established the Forestry Ecological Compensation Fund, which awards compensation for public ecological service forests; the standard was 75 yuanhayear initially, but was raised to 225 yuanhayear in 2013. In this context, Chinese Government support has reached 14.9 billion yuan per year. In 2013 the new National Forest Tending Regulation that adopted the MFFM concept was enacted; it included a training and monitoring programme nationwide. It addresses most state forests and supports all multifunction-oriented forest tending and silviculture operations in both natural forests and plantations. It has been redesigned to allow public benefits to predominate. It is partly supported by government funding at about 2 000 yuanhayear and more than 6.2 billion yuan was spent for tending or silvicultural activities in public welfare-oriented multifunctional forests nationwide in 2013. This policy will be slowly elevated step-wise on a yearly basis. The FLR concept reported in this paper and its technical tools for implementation are characterized by a technical framework of multifunctional zoning, CNFM planning and stand operation regimes. This approach is likely to meet current needs with the implementation of the new National Forest Tending Regulations. The multifunctional stand operation regime would be a suitable concept for most public ecologically- and socially-oriented forests, as well as those with community or private ownership that intend to participate in the Ecological Compensation Program. All of these FLR policies are government-oriented in character due to the relatively simplified and uniform forest ownership system in China; however farmers and forest residents are encouraged to pursue restoration and maintenance of forest ecological services nationwide.