12 Even though this research also analyzes speech acts, there is still difference
from them. The main focus of this study is to analyze speech acts in in written communication. This study analyzes speech act categories and TYS column in the
Jakarta Post newspaper is a subject for this speech act study.
B. Theoretical Description
In this section, speech act theories are elaborated. The main theory is about speech act categories based on Searle. The elaboration of the theory is presented
below.
1. Speech Acts
According to Searle 1969, producing the utterance token with certain conditions is called speech act. It is considered as a basic unit of human
communication. Meanwhile, Austin 1962 states that speech act is the utterance of certain words that intends to express a certain meaning with a certain force to
produce a certain effect. It is performed to convey information, give an order, request information, give warnings, give advices, give compliments, etc.
Austin 1962 decides that utterances involve three acts: a locutionary act, an illocutionary act, and a perlocutionary act. First, the locutionary act is the act
which has a meaning. Second, the act in saying something which has a certain force is called illocutionary act. Last, the perlocutionary act is the achieving of certain
effects by saying something. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
13 Moreover, Austin 1962 also claims complete speech acts: requesting,
questioning, commanding, advising, etc., as illocutionary acts. Meanwhile, Searle 1969, p. 42 defines that illocutionary acts are
“characteristically performed in the utterance of sounds or making of marks”. The illocutionary acts are implied based
on the speaker’s intention by uttering the sentence to reach the certain goal or function.
“The sounds or marks one makes in the performance of an illocutionary act is characteristically said to have meaning, and a second related difference is
that one is characteristically said to mean something by utterance of those sounds or marks. Characteristically, when one speaks one means something
by what one says; and what one says, the string of sounds that one emits, is characteristically said to have a
meaning” Searle,1969, pp. 42-43. Searle 1969 gives the illustration with
the word ‘hello’. ‘Hello’ intends the knowledge that the hearer is being greeted. If the hearer recognizes it as the
speaker’s intention, the hearer acquires that knowledge. In the literal utterance, the speaker intends to produce a certain effect so that the hearer recognizes his intention
to produce the effect. Furthermore, he intends the recognition to be achieved based on the fact what he utters associate the expression with the production of the effect.
Searle 1969 also adds the explanation that understanding is the intended effect of meaning. In this case, every single word when people say has a meaning.
If the speaker says something and meaning, he is connected the intention to produce certain effects on the hearer. In vice versa, the hearer understands the speaker’s
utterance is connected with recognizing his intentions. If the hearer understands the speaker’s utterance, the intentions will be achieved.
14 Based on Searle 1976, speech acts are classified into five categories based
on illocutionary points. He believes that each time that a word or phrase which is spoken is a speech act that can be classified in a several different categories.
a. Assertive
Assertive category is a speech act that commits the speaker to the truth of a proposition Searle, 1976. The purpose of assertive speech act is to convey
information about some state of affairs of the world from the speaker to the hearer. It convinces the listener to believe what the speaker says. Searle 1979 explains
that the assertive is related to true or false. It can also be evaluated to be true or false. The speaker has possibility of stating wrong thing.
Searle 1979 also mentions that assertive keywords are hypothesize, insist, boast, complain, conclude, deduce, diagnose, and claim. Therefore, it refers to
predictions, statements, descriptions, classifications, explanations, concluding and clarifications Alston, 2000. The examples of assertive category as written in Yule
1996 are: 1 The earth is flat. 2 Chomsky didn’t write about peanuts. 3 It was a
warm sunny day. b.
Commissive Commissive category is
“a type of utterance where the speaker makes a commitment to a future course of action” Crystal, 2003, p. 84. A commissive
speech act aims to commit the speaker to carry out some actions in the future Ad- Darraji, 2012. By commissive speech acts, the speaker wants the world to be
changed to fit his words Yule, 1996. The speaker intends to do the action. Searle PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
15 1979 said that the successful performance of commissive speech acts produces
commitment of the speaker to carry out some actions in the future. The clues of commissive speech acts are reject, refuse, swear, promise, etc.
It refers to vows, threats, pledges, guarantees, contracts, promises, covenants, and oaths. The examples of commissive category as written in Yule 1996 are: 1
I’ll be back. 2
I’m going to get it right next time. 3 We will not do that. c.
Directive In directive category, the speaker requests the hearer to do something
Searle, 1976. The speaker wants the hearer to do the speaker’s willingness. Many
directive sentences are posed as questions so they are easy to identify by the presence of a question mark. Furthermore, many directive speech acts are not stated
as a question but as a request for assistance. The directive keywords are ask, order, command, request, beg, plead, pray,
entreat, invite, permit, advise, dare, defy, challenge Searle, 1976. Thus, it includes orders, commands, requests, and refers to pleading, begging, praying, insisting, and
suggesting. The examples of directive category as written in Yule 1996 are: 1 Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black. 2 Could you lend me a pen, please? 3
Don’t touch that. d.
Expressive Verschueren 1999, p. 24 says that expressive category
is to “express a variety of psychological states, having no direction of fit between words and world,
and simply counting as expressions of psychological states. ” The purpose of which
is to express the speakers attitude and emotion towards a particular proportion. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
16 Expressive speech acts communicate to the hearer that a specific emotion is present
in the speaker. These can clarify, amplify, and precise the intended message of emotions. They deal with social and interpersonal relations. Expressive speech act
includes thanking, apologizing, congratulating, and welcoming Searle, 1976. The examples of an expressive category as written in Yule 1996 are: 1
I’m really sorry 2 Congratulations 3 Oh, yes, great, mmmm, ssahh
e. Declarative
Declarative category is a speech act where the speaker brings about some state of affairs by the mere performance of the speech act Searle, 1979. Someone
who performs declarative speech acts wants to create a new reality. It transforms into a new state. Yule 1996, p. 128 said that it is
“a speech act that brings about a change by being uttered, e.g. a judge pronouncing a sentence.” The examples of
declarative category as written in Yule 1996 are: 1 Priest: I now pronounce your husband and wife. 2
Referee: You’re out 3 Jury Foreman: We find the defendant guilty.
Furthermore, there is correlation between mood types and speech acts. In this case, mood types influence the role of speech acts. Based on Huddleston and
Pullum 2002, the sentence type is the grammatical system which has the major types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamative. They also explain that
each of the types has own characteristics. First, declarative sentence is used to give the statement. It is the common
types in writing. It ends with period. For example: 1 Practice makes perfect. 2 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
