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4 Fusion
It refers to the blending of two separate sounds to become a single sound and the resulting single sound carries some of the phonetic features of both of the
original sound Crowley, 1992, p. 46. 5
Unpacking
Unpacking is a phonetic process that is the opposite of phonetic fusion. From a single original sound, a sequence of two sounds may develop, each with
some of the feature of the original sound. Crowley, 1992, p. 48.
6 Vowel Breaking
Vowel breaking is fairly common in the languages of the world. The process refers to the change of a single vowel to become a diphthong, with the
original vowel remaining the same, but with a glide of some kind being added either before or after it.
Crowley, 1992, p . 49 .
7 Assimilation
Many sound changes can be viewed as being due to the influence of one sound upon another. This influence that causes one sound to change so that the
two sounds end up being more similar to each other in some way is called assimilation.
Crowley, 1992, p. 49
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8 Dissimilation
Dissimilation process is precisely the opposite of assimilation process. Instead of making two sounds more like each other, this process means that one
sound changes to become less like some other nearby sound. Therefore, it reduces the number of shared phonetic features between two sounds. Crowley, 1992, p.
56.
9 Abnormal Sound Changes
Sometimes an individual sound has changed in a rather unusual way. Abnormal sound changes are the sound changes that would appear, at first glance,
to be abnormal. In the sense that they do not obviously fit into any of the categories that have mentioned above Crowley 1992.
3. English Sound Production
There are three parts that will be discussed as the English sound production in this section. They are the English consonant, English vowels, and
diphthongs.
a. Consonant Sounds
Consonant is a speech sound which typically occurs at the margins of the syllable Collins and Mees, 2003, p. 72. It exists before or after a vowel or
diphthong to form a syllable. Consonant are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract that impedes the flow of air from lungs Fromkin,
Rodman, Hyams 2003. According to Indriani 2005, there are twenty-four
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consonants in English, namely, [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [s], [z], [ ʃ], [ ʒ],
[tʃ], [d ʒ], [ө], [ð], [m], [n], [ŋ], [h], [l], [r], [w], [j] p. 8. Figure 2.1 shows the
articulation of the English consonant sounds.
Fig 2.1 Chief English Consonantal Articulations Indriani, 2005, p. 11
In the following part, the consonant sounds would be discussed based on the place of articulation and the manner of articulation. Here are the details of the
English consonant sounds.
1 Bilabial Plosives [
p,b]
[p] and [b] are two sounds of the English consonants. According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams 2003, based on the place of the articulation, [p]
and [b] sounds are articulated by bringing both lips together which is called bilabials p. 242. Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, the sound
Place of articulation
B IL
A B
IA L
L AB
IO -DE
N T
AL DE
NT AL
AL VE
OL AR
P OS
T AL
VE OL
AR P
AL AT
O -
AL VE
OL AR
P AL
AT AL
VE L
AR GL
OT AL
M a
n n
e r
o f
a r
ti c
u la
ti o
n
COMPLETE ORAL
CLOSURE Plosive
p b t d
k g
Affricate
tʃ d ʒ
Nasal
m n
ᵑ
INTERMITTE NT
CLOSURE Roll
r
PARTIAL CLOSURE
Leteral
l
NARROWING
Fricative
f v ϴ ð
s z ʃ
ʒ h
GLIDE Semi
Vowel
w j
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[p] and [b] are called plosives or nonnasal, or oral, stops because when we produce these sounds, the air that is blocked in the mouth explodes when the
closure is released Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 247. For example,
pig [pɪg] and book [bʊk]. 2
Alveolar Plosives [ t,d]
Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams 2003 explain that these sounds are called plosives or nonnasal, or oral, stops which are produced by blocking the air in the
mouth and exploding when the closure is released p. 247. In addtion he states that based on the place of the articulation, [t] and [d] sounds are called alveolar in
which these sounds are produced by raising the front part of the tongue to the alveolar ridge Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 242. For example, time
[taɪm], take [teɪk], and day [deɪ].
3 Velar Plosives [
k,g]
Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams 2003 state that based on the place of the articulation, [k] and [g] sounds are called velar in which these sounds are
produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum p. 243. Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation [k] and [g] sounds are called
plosives because these sounds are produced by blocking the air in the mouth and exploding when the closure is released Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p.
247. For example, come [kʌm], close [kloʊz], go [goʊ], and good [gʊd].
