month
.”
month beforethe previous month.
She said, “He came to your house
2 days ago
.” She said that he had come to my
house 2 days before2 days earlier.
She said, “I helped my mother
yesterday
.” She said that he had helped her
mother the
day beforethe
previous day. They said, “It ripped the day
before yesterday
.”
They said that it had ripped two days before.
He said, “I have a present for you
in my bag here
.” He said that he had a present for me
in his bag there. My mother said, “This is a good
day.”
My mother said that that was a
good day.
My father said, “These are lovely
kittens.”
My father said that those were
lovely kittens.
2.4 Error Analysis 2.4.1 The Difference of Error and Mistake
In learning language especially second language, we will find a problem which also known as error and mistake. Brown 2000 states that in the process of learning
especially English, there are 2 terms for distinguishing mistake which is made by student, they
are ‘mistake’ and ‘error’. Generally, people think that error and mistake is same, but in fact, they are so different.
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Ellis 1985:9 states that errors are an important source of information about SLA, because they demonstrate conclusively that learners do not simply memorize
target language rules and then reproduce them in their own utterance. They indicate that learners construct their own rules on the basis of input data, and that in some
instances at least these rules differ from those of target language Error is the fault which is happens in the process of understanding. So, the fault
which occurs here is not the technically problem like ‘slip of tongue’ but the fault which describes that a student is not knowing and understanding the patterns in the
language yet. Furthermore, mistake is the fault which makes by student because of the fault
hypothesis and the fault in using the knowing systems. It means that the student has known the language well but there is “slip in tongue” factor, random grammar,
mistakes in remembering, or physically factors such as: fatigue and uncontrollable emotion.
It is important to know the differences between error and mistake because they have different factors which cause it. Mistake happens because of “error in
performanc e” and error happens because of “error in competence”. So, to prove if a
student makes a mistake or an error that is to recheck the mistake with the student which made it. If he can re-correct the found mistake, it means that he made a
mistake or “error in performance” but if he cannot find and re-correct the mistake, it means that he made an error or “error in competence”.
2.4.2 Error and Error Analysis
Ellis 1985:9 states that errors are an important source of information about SLA, because they demonstrate conclusively that learners do not simply memorize
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target language rules and then reproduce them in their utterances. They indicated that learners construct their own rules in the basis of input data, and that in some
instances at least these rules differ from those of the target language. Error and error analysis can’t be separated because there is no error analysis without the error itself.
Error analysis exists because of the error itself, it is the object which will be analyzed.
The procedure for error analysis is spelled out in Corder 1979. It is as follows: A.
A corpus of language is selected This involves deciding on the size of the sample, the medium to the sampled, and
the homogeneity of the sample with regard to the learner’s ages, L1 background, stage of development, etc
B. The errors in the corpus are identified
Corder 1971 points out the need to distinguish ‘lapses’ i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of processing limitations rather than lack of competence from
‘errors’ i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of lack of competence. He also points out that sentences can be ‘overtly idiosyncratic’ i.e. they are ill formed in
terms of target language rules and ‘convertly idiosyncratic’ i.e. sentences that are superficially well formed but when their context of use is examined are clearly
ungrammatical C.
The errors are classified This involves assigning a grammatical description to each error.
D. The errors are explained
In this stage of procedure an attempt is made to identify the psycholinguistic cause of the errors. For examples, an attempt could be made to establish which of the
five processes described by Selinker 1972 is responsible for each error.
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E. The errors are evaluated
This stage involves assessing the seriousness of each error in order to take principled teaching decisions. Error evaluation is necessary only if the purpose of the
error analysis is pedagogic. It is redundant if the error analysis is carried out in order to research SLA.
There are some classifications of error. This classify can explain us about the kinds of error and how to analysis each errors which we will find in the using of a
language. Some experts have their own classification which will be explained below:
1. Jack Richards 1974:173
Jack Richards classifies error into two kinds, they are: A.
Interlanguage Errors The term interlanguage was first used by Selinker 1972. Various alternative
terms have been used by different researchers to refer to the same phenomenon; Nemser 1971 refers to approximative systems, and Coder 1971 to idiosyncratic
dia lects and transitional competence.
These terms reflect two related but different concepts. First, interlanguage refers to the structured system which the learner constructs at any given stage in his
development i.e. an interlanguage. Second, the term refers to the series of interlocking systems which form what Corder 1967 called the learner’s ‘built-in-
syllabus’ i.e. interlanguage continuum Richard 1974:173 says that interlanguage errors are errors caused by the
interference of the learner’s mother tongue. The interference means the interference of native language into the second language which means the learning process. The
interlanguage errors can be occurred when someone wants to learn a language second language and he brings his native language to the language which he is
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learning to. Error must be happened because language is not same. There are so many aspects which make a language different from another, one of them is culture.
B. Intralingual Errors
Richard 1974:6 says that intralingual errors refers to item produced by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, but generalizations based
on partial exposure to the target language. Intralingual errors occur in the second language, it is the result of the understanding of the learner to the second language.
The error can be faced even in the simple rules such as the differences between the verb inflections in I count, she counts. The error looks simple but it is crucial for
a good writing. Intralingual errors can be classified into some errors such as: Overgeneralization
Languages have their own rules which make them unique. One rule is used for the specific matter and it can’t be used to the other matters. The overgeneralization is
a big mistake to a learner who is learning a language. Jacobvits in Richards, 1974 defines overgeneralization is the use of previously available strategies in new
situations. There are some mistakes which we can face in using a language such as the using of past form in English. Generally, English verb uses
–ed to define that it is the past form but in fact, the
–ed form is not occurred in some verbs. It may be inferred that the overgeneralization is not suggested.
Ignorance of Rule Restriction Overgeneralization and ignorance of rule restriction are similar because they
disobey the basic rules in a language. No limitation is the main idea of this type. Incomplete of Application Rules
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These errors reflect the degree of rule acquisition and the ability correct utterance to be produced. The error concerns to the negative and interrogative sentence which
centered to the using of auxiliary verbs or the inversion. False Concept Hypothesis
These errors are caused by the poor gradation of teaching such the mistakes resulted from a poor rule presentation. For getting a clear explanation we can see that
in the using of word “yet”.
– He has arrived the house yet.
The using of “yet” above is false because the word “yet” is occurred in a negative
sentence.
2. Dulay and Burt 1973, 1974a
They identified 4 types of error according to their psycholinguistic origins: A.
Interference-like Errors Those errors that reflect native language structure and are not found in first
language acquisition data. B.
First Language Developmental Errors Those that do not reflect native language structure but are found in first language
acquisition data. C.
Ambiguous Errors Those that can not be categorized as either interference-like or developmental.
D. Unique Errors
Those that do not reflect first language structure and also are not found in first language acquisition data.
3. Dulay, Burt, and Krashen 1982:138
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Dulay, Burt, and Krashen 1982:138 state that errors are the flawed side of learner speech or writing. They described 4 descriptive taxonomies to analyzed
errors. They are: A.
Linguistic Category Taxonomy Linguistic category taxonomy classifies according to either or both the language
component and the particular linguistic constituent the error effects. The language components are phonology, syntax and morphology, semantic and lexicon, and
discourse whereas constituents include the elements that comprise each language component.
B. Surface Strategy Taxonomy
Surface strategy taxonomy is the highlights of the way surface structures which are altered. There are some kinds of errors in this kind:
Omission Errors Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in
well-formed utterance. Addition Errors
Addition errors are characterized by the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed utterance. Three types of addition errors are:
– Double markings: dey didn’t ate the meals. – Regularization: goed for went.
– Simple additions: I doesn’t go to school. Misinformation Errors
Misinformation errors are characterized with the used of the wrong forms of morphemes or structure. The types of this kind are:
– Regularization errors: she goed to school.
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– Archi-forms: I come to her house yesterday. – Alternating forms: I gone to her house yesterday.
Misordering Errors Misordering errors are the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of
morphemes in an utterance. C.
Comparative Taxonomy Classifying the errors based on comparison between the structure of language
learners’ errors and the types of construction. The kinds of this taxonomy are: developmental errors, interlingual errors, ambiguous errors and unique errors.
D. Communicative Effect Taxonomy
Deals with the errors from the perspective of the listener or reader. The taxonomy can be classified into: global errors and local errors.
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CHAPTER III METHOD OF RESEARCH
3.1 Research Design
