Purposes of Reading Literature Review

bring to the text; those are knowledge, experiences, expectations, and intuition to make interpretations of the text Johnson, 2001; Brown, 2001. Therefore, it is also called as ‘concept-driven processing’ Johnson, 2001. When the readers are relating between what they get in the text and their background knowledge and experiences, they build schemata in their mind Johnson, 2001. According to Artlett in Johnson 2001, schemata are mental frameworks that the readers hold as individuals and which they bring with them when they read. The theory underlying this process is called ‘schema theory’ which is defined by Gillet and Temple 1986: 207 as “a model of reading comprehension that takes into account what readers may already know and how they go about developing and adding to schemata as they read.” 3 Interactive model This model is the integration between the elements of bottom-up and top- down model. This model exists because there are many arguments said that both models are needed although in a certain situation, one of the models is more needed than another one Johnson, 2001. Murtagh 1989, in Nunan, 2003 considers this combination as the best model. It effectively connects important aspects of the bottom-up and top-down model. In order to comprehend the texts, the readers have to consider the essential elements of the linguistic signals in the texts and use their background knowledge to create a strong concept of what is being read in their minds. This model also encourages the readers to be more conscious of the strategies in comprehending the texts.

d. Micro- and Macro-Skills of Reading

To achieve different purposes in reading, a good reader needs to master reading skills. According to Grabe and Stroller 2011: 8- 9, the term ‘skill’ represents linguistics processing abilities that are relatively automatic in their use and their combination. Moreover, Grab e and Stoller 2011 view skills as “general learning outcomes of goal-driven tasks, acquired gradually and eventually automatized.” ɒrown 2004: 187-188 divides the reading skills into two big elements, namely micro-skills and macro-skills. In micro-skills, readers are required to have skills to deal with graphemes and orthographic patterns and linguistic signals. Brown 2004 also provides the list of micro-skills of the reading comprehension as follows. 1. Discriminating among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns of English 2. Retaining chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory 3. Processing writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose 4. Recognizing a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance 5. Recognizing grammatical word classes nouns, verbs, etc. systems e.g., tense, agreement, and pluralisation, patterns, rules and elliptical forms. 6. Recognizing that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms 7. Recognizing cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signalling the relationship between and among clauses. In macro skills, readers need to make use of their discourse knowledge, communicative functions of written texts, inference skill, scanning, and skimming techniques. Brown 2004: 187-188 presents the macro-skills of reading as follows.