24 Campbell 1998 assumes that translation competence into the second
language is somehow scrambled up with second language proficiency. It is however a very special variety of second language proficiency: the second
language translators have to work within the limitations of their second language repertoire, and the stages of individuals’ language development must be reflected
in the quality of their translation. Yet, the translators also have to work within the limitation of the source text, and it is this that makes translation into second
language a very special variety of second language writing Campbell, 1998. One of the aspects of translating a first language essay into a second
language essay is in the special character of written language itself Campbell, 1998. There is the fact that high levels of second language proficiency in writing
reflect control over special features of written language. Chafe and Tannen 1987 review the literature on the differences between written and spoken language. The
first part of the review deals with the structural differences between the two modes, while the second treats the contextual influences on their use and creation.
d. Translation Method
Vinay and Darbelnet 2004 describe seven translation methods in increasing order of difficulty. The first method is called borrowing. This method
is applied by taking a word directly from another language. The word bulldozer,
for example, has been incorporated directly into other languages. Borrowing is also used to translate new technical process and unknown concept. This is
considered as the simplest method of translation.
25 The second method proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet 2004 is calque. In
this method, a language borrows an expression form from another, but then translates each of its elements literally. The third method is literal translation.
Literal translation is more convenient between members of the same language family; it is frequently enabled by similarity of thought and structure.
Transposition method is applied in translation by shifting word class with another without changing the meaning of the message, i.e., verb for noun, noun
for adjective. The next method is known as modulation. Modulation is a variation in the form of a message that occurs because of a change of viewpoint. It is
typically used when a translation is unidiomatic or awkward though it is correct. Whereas transposition is a shift between grammatical categories, modulation is
shift in cognitive categories. Vinay and Darbelnet 2004 postulate eleven types of modulation. Among those types are abstract for concrete, cause for effect, and
means for result. The following method proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet 2004 is called
equivalence. This accounts for the same situation using a completely different phrase. The translation of proverbs or idiomatic expressions would engage in this
method. Indonesian proverb Buah jatuh tidak jauh dari pohonnya would not be
literally translated into fruit does not fall far from its three. Using equivalence method, the proverb is translated into English proverbs like father like son. The
last method is adaptation. Adaptation is a shift in cultural environment to express the message using a different situation.
26 These seven methods are useful ways of viewing translation, although
logically any list of approaches to translation and translation methodologies ought to be open-ended, because definitions of translation itself vary and approaches
may be categorized in different ways. In addition to these methods, McCarthy O’Dell’s 1994 asserted on the
application of word equivalence in translation. McCarthy O’Dell’s 1994 treatment of another formal aspect of vocabulary, word formation, can provide a
useful basis for the translator to build a comparative perspective of the way in which English and Indonesian form words as cited in Johnson, 2006. English is
the object of study of so many students that there is naturally a tendency for there to be extensive compilations of materials that form overall a characterization of
the English tongue. Such treatment of concepts, feelings, and actions offer an excellent base
for the compilation of a resource that might be described as a bilingual thesaurus if such a resource is undertaken. Whether the translation is from Indonesian or
into Indonesian, there will naturally tend to be reference back and forth between English and Indonesian bodies of knowledge and skill Johnson, 2006.
e. Translation Process
