11 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
There are two major sections that are going to be discussed in this chapter. They are the theoretical descriptions which contain reviews on related literatures
to answer research problems and the theoretical framework which underlies the research.
A. Theoretical Descriptions
In this section, the writer elaborates seven groups of theory which will be used to design a set of integrated reading and writing instructional materials for
the tenth graders of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu St. Louis IX Bantul. Those are the theory of teaching and learning, the theory of instructional design, the theory
of materials development, the theory of Cooperative Learning, the theory of reading, the theory of writing, the theory of integrated reading and writing.
1. Teaching and Learning
Teaching and learning reflects one another. Teaching and learning are the synergy between teachers and students, so forth. Teachers teach various characters
of students. To teach means to draw our willingness to respect each character based on humanity. To teach means to bridge our students to broader views and
unlimited knowledge. Duncan and Hough 1970: 2 notes that teaching is an activity- a unique professional, rational, and humane activity in which one
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creatively and imaginatively uses himself and his knowledge to promote the learning and welfare of others.
To teach is to carry double duties, to succeed academic goals and do parenting. To teach is to provoke students about the everlasting values of learning.
To teach is also to evoke students’ awareness about the tremendous values of knowledge for life, for others, for the world and humanity.
Teachers are expected to be fair for each student. Capable to manage any misbehavior may emerge during the classroom activities. The essential point to
consider, teachers are not to choose ideal classrooms or students with certain proficiencies. Teachers have to be willing to take students what they are. And, to
unify all differences into a meaningful humanity learning processes. However, a classroom’s activities involved the other party; students. In a
classroom, students experience their learning achievements. According to Gagne 1997: 3 as cited in Winastuti 1998: 8,
Learning is a change in human disposition or capability, which persists over time, and which is not simply ascribable to processes of growth.
Learning must be comprehensive, means that when someone learns a language, it will not only the language elements as the materials to learn,
but also the culture and customs that may affect the usage of the language. Through the language they obtain, even in minimum rate, learners may
shift their paradigms about one issue or capable in working things out or taking decisions. The knowledge mastery is unseen but obvious in their
actions.
From this statement, it is clear that learning is a process which needs to involve a
systematic stage of teaching.
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Thus, the writer bases the designed materials also from the principles of teaching and the principles of learning. Duncan and Hough 1970: 4- 7 outsets
six teaching principles as below: a.
The teacher is or must become a professional who is capable of making rational, humane, and creative decisions regarding the teaching act.
b. The primary purpose of teaching is to facilitate student learning.
c. Students learning can be measured only through observations that reveal
changes in behavior. d.
The act of teaching is a complex process that is influenced by a field of forces of which teachers can be only in part aware and which the teacher
can only partially control. e.
Teaching is an activity that can be described and analyzed. f.
Teachers should use objective evidence about their teaching and its effect on student learning to evaluate their own teaching.
Also, the principles of learning as elaborated by Kemp 1977: 59 - 60 are: a.
Pre- learning preparation: Learning must have pre- learning preparation or learning rote because students should have satisfactorily achieved the
learning that is prerequisite to the lesson. b.
Motivation: Learning must hold and capture students’ motivation because the result is the teaching and learning are easier and the students can be led
to accept responsibility for pursuing learning experiences independently.
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c. Individual differences: Learning experiences should be designed so that
students may proceed at their own paces and possibly on their own levels of ability, using materials that are most appropriate for them.
d. Instructional conditions: Learning content should be organized sequentially
from simple to complex- that is, starting with factual learning, then moving on to concept formation, principles, and eventually to higher intellectual
levels, such as problem- solving, prediction, and inference. e.
Active participation: Learning must be performed by the student and not by the teacher through some kind of transmission.
f. Successful achievement: Learning must be structured in such a way that the
student is mentally challenged and frequently successful. g.
Knowledge of result: Learning provides feedback to inform student how well they are doing during the lesson tests, discussions, exercises and
then, they are reinforced for continued effort. h.
Practice: learning is to use their newly acquired knowledge and skills in many situations.
i. Rate of Presenting Materials: learning must be related to the complexity
and difficulty of the material in terms of the abilities of the students. j.
Instructor’s Attitude: a positive attitude on the parts of the teacher and any assistant can influence the attitudes of students toward the acceptance of
new instructional procedures. Refer to teaching and learning principles, the writer hopes that the designed
materials and its activities would fill students’ needs and desires.
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Yalden’s Instructional Design
In accomplishing the research, the writer adapted Yalden’s instructional design model. This model presents structured stages consisting of specified tasks
needed to do by the writer in designing the materials. The stages refer to the stages of how to develop a language program in which there is a stage to develop
a syllabus. According to Yalden 1987: 88 - 89, the stages are elaborated as follows:
1. Needs Survey
This stage aimed at collecting information from the target learners which will be used to describe learning purposes. Needs survey can be conducted by
distributing questionna ires and interviews. 2.
Description of purposes After the needs survey conducted, the next step is describing learning
purposes. Learning purposes will be the bases for developing syllabus and content of the designed materials.
3. Selection and development of syllabus type
This stage is to develop the content of designed materials. A syllabus is a stage of which specific content of language course is organized. The writer
should consider the needs of learners so that the designed materials could meet what the learners’ needs and desire.
4. Production of a proto-syllabus
This is the step where the writer specified the content of the syllabus. It included general and specific notions, communicative functions, discourse
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and rhetorical skills, cooperative activities, reading for meaning, and reading for gists.
5. Production of a pedagogical syllabus
The writer specifies words and phrases which are suitable to support the language functions and the topics.
6. Development and implementation of classroom procedures
The writer divided this stage into two steps: a.
Development of classroom procedures Selection of exercises types and teaching techniques
Preparation of lesson plan Preparation of weekly schedule
b. Teacher training: briefings and workshop on
Principles Desired outcomes
Exploitation or creation of teaching materials 7.
Evaluation This step is to evaluate the content of the designed materials. The evaluation is
conducted to measure the suitability of the designed materials with the learners.
8. Recycling Stage
The last stage is the stage to follow-up the evaluation. Recycling stage is used to meet the congruence of goal set and the student performance through
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feedback from evaluation. After obtaining feedbacks, materials and methodological procedures are revised.
The stages can be summarized in Figure 2.1
To assist Yalden’s adapted model, the writer also refers to syllabus development theories from Nunan 1988. Nunan 1988: 27 explains that there
are two syllabuses. The first is product-oriented syllabuses. The second is process- oriented syllabuses. Product-oriented syllabuses are:
a. Grammatical syllabus, which emphasizes on grammatical rules.
b. Functional-notional syllabus, which emphasizes on language functions and
language notions meanings. c.
Analytic syllabus, where linguistic matters such as are included to learn. Then, the second syllabus is process-oriented syllabus which is much
influenced by learning processes. As in Nunan 1988: 40 - 60, process-oriented syllabuses are as follows:
a. Procedural syllabus, in which the learning tasks and activities should
represent the use of language rather than the language exercise. b.
Task-based syllabus, in which the selection of task and activities is considering the subject matter, the goal, and the context.
Descri ption
of Purpo
ses Selection
develop ment of
syllabus Producti
on of a proto
syllabus Developme
nt and implementa
tion of classroom
procedures Evalu
ation Needs
Survey Producti
on of a pedagog
ical syllabus
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c. Content syllabus, in which the language learning can be developed through
a subject matter. d.
Natural approach, in which the central point of this syllabus is comprehension.
From the elaborations of those syllabuses, the writer would like to choose the task-based syllabus which is suitable to be applied in the language program for
integrated reading and writing instructional materials. Since the language learning must consider the subject matter, the goal, and context, thus all activities in
integrated reading and writing can be developed in cooperative activities based on the information obtained from the learners. Thus, the writer perceives that
learning would be meaningful and experiential for both teacher and students. The learners would not only obtain knowledge in reading comprehension and writing
processes, but also to experience contributive and constructive activities as seen in groups discussion, peers- feedback, and problem solving but guided by the teacher.
Then, the topics of learning should be based on Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan 2006
, for Grade X narrative, recount, descriptive, and procedure.
3. Materials Development
