A CONVERSATION ANALYSIS OF REPAIR IN ANDERSON COOPER 360: DONALD TRUMP, CNN MILWAUKEE REPUBLICAN PRESIDENTIAL TOWN HALL EPISODE.

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Attainment of a

Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Literature

by:

Tri Intan Mabruroh 13211141001

ENGLISH LITERATURE STUDY PROGRAM ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY

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“If I have the belief that I can do it,

I shall surely acquire the capacity to do it

even if I may not have it at the beginning.‟‟

~ Mahatma Gandhi ~

“If you look at what you have in life, you‟ll always

have more. If you look at what you don‟t have in life,

you‟ll never have enough.‟‟

~ Oprah Winfrey ~

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This thesis is dedicated to

My parents, Masripah and Torani

My little sister, Gesti Feel Aulidia

Me, and

My older brother, Agus Setia Budi

the Most Hard-working Gentleman in the Universe!

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All praises be to Allah SWT, the Almighty for all blessings and miracles thus I can complete this thesis. He has given me lots of strengths, guidance, and courage during my life. I cannot portray how grateful I am for this accomplishment. In doing this thesis and finishing my college years, I was also helped by lot of parties in dealing with all of the obstacles. Therefore, my sincere deepest gratitude is delivered to:

1. my supervisor, Titik Sudartinah, M.A., for all of the valuable explanation so that I can finish my thesis, and also for her support, motivation, and guidance thus I can complete this achievement;

2. my academic advisor, Eko Rujito Dwi Atmojo, M.Hum., who has consistently guided me in regard to my academic career during my college years;

3. all lecturers of English Education Department of Yogyakarta State University, mainly the lecturers and staffs of English Literature Study Program for their valuable knowledge they shared;

4. my mom, Masripah, for being a great mom who is always there to support me unconditionally;

5. my dad, Torani, for his guidance; his memory will be with me always; 6. my brother and my sister, my cousins, and all my family who have supported

me during my college years;

7. all my dear friends in Linguistics Class for the incredible years and also all members of English Literature 2013;

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and Yesi who always help me to check my thesis;

9. my fellow tutors of Bahasa Indonesia for Non-native Speakers (BIPA) Faculty of Languages and Arts as well as tutors, student volunteers, and staffs of the Office of International Affairs and Partnership Yogyakarta State University for all of the multicultural communication experiences;

10. my KKN 49ND team, Gio, Kiki, Chimi, Yudith, Ade, Ayu, Mbak Mus, Irfan, and Mas Farhan for all of the happiness;

11. my A27 girls, Indra, Mbak Cici, Indah, Yola, Putri, Dhita, Safina, Dinda, Galuh, Ratni, Pi‟ah, Lis, Wiwin, Sativa, Debby, and Nisa for all of the enthusiasm; and

12. all people who have helped me during the process of finishing this thesis, but whose names cannot be mentioned one by one.

Finally, I realize that this thesis is still far from perfection. Therefore, I would like to accept any suggestion to the betterment of this thesis.

April 7th, 2017 The researcher

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE ... i

APPROVAL SHEET ... ii

RATIFICATION SHEET ... iii

PERNYATAAN ... iv

MOTTOS ... v

DEDICATION ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ... xii

ABSTRACT ... xiii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Research Focus ... 3

C. Objectives of the Study ... 5

D. Significance of the Study ... 6

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ... 7

A. Literature Review ... 7

1. Conversation Analysis (CA) ... 7

2. Repair ... 9

a. Terminology of Repair ... 9

b. Types of Repair ... 11

1) Self-initiated self-repair ... 11

2) Self-initiated other-repair ... 12

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c. Patterns of Repair Completion ... 15

1) Replacement ... 15

2) Modification ... 15

3) Abandonment ... 16

4) Reorganization ... 16

5) Correction ... 17

6) Specification ... 17

7) Elaboration ... 18

8) Exemplification... 18

9) Rewording ... 19

10)Restructuring ... 19

d. Factors Initiating Repair ... 20

3. Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 21

4. Previous Studies ... 21

B. Conceptual Framework ... 23

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD ... 26

A. Type of the Study ... 26

B. Forms, Context, and Source of Data ... 26

C. Data Collection Techniques ... 27

D. Research Instrument ... 29

E. Data Analysis Techniques ... 29

F. Data Trustworthiness ... 30

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 31

A. Findings ... 31

B. Discussion ... 34

1. Types of Repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 34

a. Self-initiated self-repair ... 34

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Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 39

a. Replacement ... 39

b. Modification ... 41

c. Abandonment ... 41

d. Reorganization ... 43

e. Specification ... 43

f. Elaboration ... 45

g. Exemplification... 46

h. Rewording ... 47

i. Others ... 48

3. Factors Initiating Repairs in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 50

a. Misheard Utterance ... 50

b. Misunderstanding ... 51

c. Unclear Intention ... 53

d. Others ... 54

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 62

A. Conclusions ... 62

B. Suggestions ... 63

REFERENCES ... 65

APPENDICES ... 67

A. The Data Sheet of Types, Patterns, and Factors of Repair Presented by the Participants in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 67

B. Surat Pernyataan Triangulasi ... 99

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Figure 1. Analytical Construct ... 25

Table 1. The Form of the Data Sheet for Types, Patterns, and Factors of Repair Uttered by the Participants in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 28 Table 2. Types, patterns, and factors which initiate the repair found in Anderson

Cooper 360:Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode ... 32

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COOPER 360: DONALD TRUMP, CNN MILWAUKEE

REPUBLICAN PRESIDENTIAL TOWN HALL EPISODE Tri Intan Mabruroh

13211141001 ABSTRACT

This research is aimed at identifying the types of repair, explaining the patterns of repair, and describing the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.

The findings of this research were presented in narrative or textual description because the research employed a descriptive qualitative method. The transcript of conversation and the video of Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode was used as the data sources in this research while the form of data was utterances uttered by the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. In order to establish the reliability of data, this research applied triangulation techniques.

The results of the research are as follows. (1) Only two out of four types were found in the research, they were self-initiated self-repair and other initiated self-repair. (2) Only eight out of ten patterns were found in the research including replacement, modification, abandonment, reorganization, specification, elaboration, exemplification, and rewording. In addition, the researcher also could find two other patterns in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. They were repetition and completion. (3) In Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, there were ten factors initiating repairs i.e. changes in the discussed topic, attempt to take a floor, blank ideas, attempt to give details, emphasis on a statement, wrong choice constituent, and incorrect information delivery. Each factor which emerged in the conversation carried a certain aim that was uttered by the speakers.

Keywords: conversation analysis, repair, Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump,

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Research Background

People in their social life are absolutely doing conversation with others. The main goal of doing the conversation is delivering the message that could be conveyed from the activity. From a conversation, there is a lot of information that can be uttered. People also can express their opinion or perspective by doing it. However, not all the messages can be delivered. The obstruction appears because of some factors. It can be due to the human beings who are not clearly sending the information or because of the non-hearing participants in the conversation. For instance, if people are talking with their friends and the information that they should get is missing, they will ask the missing information to complete their conversation in order to reply with the best response.

According to Liddicoat (2007: 1), conversation is one of the ways where people can socialize, develop, and sustain each other‟s relationship. In line with the statement, it is true that a conversation manages people‟s social life. In scientific field, an interesting phenomenon in linguistics that sometimes is taken as the object of the study related to conversation is called as conversation analysis. In his book titled An Introduction to Conversation Analysis, Liddicoat defines conversation analysis as a study of the organization and orderliness of social interaction where people interacting with each other in

a society. It needs the social interaction as the data of the study. In addition, there are some fields under conversation analysis, such as sequence organization, turn taking, adjacency pairs, and repair.

The main field of this research is one of the fields under conversation analysis called repair. The researcher is interested in conducting the research about repair because in daily life, people are revising their words. It can be seen how people revise the words in order to complete their conversation to achieve their aim. In addition, compared to the other topics in conversation analysis, repair is one of the fields that is rarely analyzed in spite of how interesting the topic is.

Repair is a term that refers to how people deal with the difficulty that appears in the middle of conversation. Jefferson in Liddicoat (2007: 174) explains that repair is not simply defined as the correction of errors. It is emphasizing on how to solve the problem that needs to be repaired. Repair is a study on resolving the errors that appear in the middle of a talk. For this reason, the best way to investigate the repair phenomena is through the data which are formed by a natural conversation. The natural conversation offered the data which is really suitable for the repair analysis. One of the sources of natural data is a conversation that occurs in a talk show.

Timberg in Reisha (2014: 3) states that talk show is a television genre that serves a fresh talk which is anchored by a host or team of hosts. A fresh talk means that the talk show usually displays a current topic that is discussed by people. In a talk show, the host usually guides the show and gives some

questions to the guest(s) about a certain topic. A famous example is Anderson Cooper 360, which is an American television talk show hosted by Anderson Cooper which was first aired on March 28th, 2008. In one of its episodes, Anderson Cooper is interviewing Donald Trump; in an episode entitled Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town House.

Donald Trump is one of the presidential candidates from Republican Party who is running for 2016 United States Presidential Election. He is a controversial figure because of his provocative statements regarding some sensitive issues. Donald Trump was trying to answer the questions asked by Anderson Cooper and the audiences related to his political campaign, USA‟s position in NATO, nuclear policies, and other issues in this show. Therefore, the researcher thinks that analyzing the language phenomena in this talk show will give the readers information about types, patterns, and also factors of repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.

B. Research Focus

Conversation is one of the activities done by people in daily life. Through conversation, people can get the information that is said by the others. In linguistics, conversation can be analyzed through some approaches such as sequence organization, turn taking, adjacency pairs, and repair.

In a conversation, of course there is a sequence of utterance that is used by people in order to make the conversation clear. From this reason, conversation also can be analyzed in terms of its sequence. The existence of

floor in a conversation also makes turn-taking distribution could be drawn in a conversation. More than that, the pairings of utterances that sometimes people unconsciously used, which is more well-known as adjacency pairs, also can be used as the approach where a conversation is placed as an object of analysis.

The researcher believes that a conversation analysis of repair is the best way to investigate the object of the research which is a talk show considering that a natural conversation occurs in a daily life. A talk show usually discusses the current issue. Anderson Cooper 360 is one of the talk show that is broadcasting in US. The researcher is using one of the episodes of the talk show as her research object. In order to maximize the investigation, the researcher limits the approach using only the repair analysis including types, patterns, and factors of repair. Analyzing the types of repair, the researcher can classify the types of repair that can be found in a conversation. The researcher also analyzes the patterns of repair as well as the factors of repair.

First, in terms of the types of repair, the research is trying to figure out how the types of repair uttered by the participants in the conversation, in this case Cooper and Trump. The researcher tries to reveal all types of repair phenomena that occur during the talk show.

Second, the research is concerned with the patterns of repair as well. Some previous studies conducted by other scholars revealed that a phenomenon of repair is certainly grouped to a pattern.

Last, the researcher also discusses the factors that initiate the repair which occurred in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.

Based on the background of the research, identification, and limitation of the problems above, this research questions can be formulated as in the following.

1. What types of repair are employed by the participants in the talk show

Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode?

2. What patterns of repair completion are uttered by the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode?

3. What factors initiate the repair in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode?

C. Objectives of the Research

In line with the formulation of the problems, the objectives of this research are:

1. to identify the types of repair employed by the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode,

2. to explain the patterns of repair completion uttered by the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, and

3. to describe the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.

D.Significance of the Research

This study offers some benefits for several parties as presented below. 1. For readers in general

After reading this research, it is hoped that the research can give some brief descriptions about the phenomenon of repair in a talk show. It also gives them new knowledge related to the language used in daily conversation mainly in the phenomena of repair.

2. For students of English Department and other researchers

The research may give the students who are majoring in linguistics some additional knowledge on repair. It is also expected that this research could become one of the sources that can be used as a reference for those who are doing the same theme in the next research.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A. Literature Review

First of all, this chapter explains about the theories which are deployed in doing the research. The theories consist of the topic of conversation analysis and the other topics in conversation analysis including sequence organization, turn-taking, adjacency pairs, and repair. 1. Conversation Analysis (CA)

Conversation is done every day by people to communicate the purpose of its goal. There are several definitions which are said by some linguists about what conversation analysis is. Conversation analysis according to Yule (1996: 71) can be described as the workings of market economy where there are several factors that influence it in its processes. Furthermore, several terms are also used to draw the process that occurs in a conversation, such as floor which means the right to speak, and control in a conversation called as turn-taking. In a conversation, there is also a competition among the speakers which is not realized by them to control the floor.

In line with Yule‟s statement regarding people‟s tendency to fight

the position in a conversation, Sack stated that to achieve a certain interactional effect in a conversation, people employ a conversation itself in a particular context (Sack via Liddicoat, 2007:4). It is clearly explained that people are competing the floor for achieving a certain context in the

conversation. Conversation analysis is working to reveal the phenomena that initiate the utterances that are spoken by the speakers as a floor‟s handler. In the book of An Introduction to Conversation Analysis, it also states that:

“Conversation analysis concerned with identifying patterns of action,

identifying instances of action through unmotivated looking and then moving to establishing collections of similar actions is an effective way of examining regularly occurring patterns.” (Liddicoat, 2007: 10)

According to Liddicoat‟s statement regarding the conversation analysis approach, it can be concluded that in the conversation analysis, the researcher could identify the patterns of action, the examples of action, and the reasons why the speakers are doing certain patterns many times.

Conversation analysis as one of the studies which concerns about the analysis of talk among the speakers has a wide scope. The scope itself including sequence organization, turn-taking, adjacency pairs, and repair.

In doing a conversation, certainly there is a sequence which arranges the process of conversation, namely sequence organization. According to Cutting (2002: 29), the term sequence is defined as a stretch of utterances or turn. Stretch here means that there are parts which build the arrangement including pre-sequences, insertion sequences, opening, and closing sequences. Next, another topic in conversation analysis is turn-taking. Turn-taking as stated by Yule (1996: 72) is a situation in a conversation where a floor can be controlled by anyone. Here, people have the same right to speak. In a conversation, it is also found a pair of utterances that build a good conversation. It is called as adjacency pairs.

Yule (1996: 77) says that in a conversation, there are many almost automatic patterns which appear. For example, when people do their greetings, the interlocutors have already had the answer in their mind.

In the next discussion, the researcher is going to discuss repair in advance. The discussion regarding repair includes some explanations about types, patterns, and factors that initiate a repair.

2. Repair

In the middle of the conversation, people tend to revise the utterances because of several reasons. In a conversation, the phenomena called as repair. Repair is not simply defined as the correction of error by the speakers. If a repair appears in the conversation, it is beneficial to note that the speakers are facing the conversational problems (Lidicoat: 2007, 172).

a. Terminology of Repair

Repair analysis is particularly divided into two in terms of the repaired segment and repairing segment. Repaired segment refers to the

trouble source where its part needs to be repaired as stated by Shcegloff, Sacks, and Jefferson via Liddicoat (2007: 171). The following is one of the examples of repair proposed by Goodwin and Goodwin (2012).

Mom : Did Miss Cohcran tell us the good things that you expected her to tell us? (looking over report card in front of seat)

Leslie : Uh, yeah,

Mom : See, Miss Cohcran‟s a highlighter. She put - She highlights (reads from report card) “A pleasure to have in class”.

In the example, Leslie and her mom are talking about her report card. Her mom makes an error in her utterance by abandoning her previous words because she seems choose the wrong constituent to say. Here, Leslie‟s mother initiates a trouble and solves it right away in the conversation. Another repair example also can be seen in the following example.

A: Oh, Sarah’s brother won the competition. B: Who?

A: Sarah’s brother.

In the conversation, because of the unheard utterances, the interlocutor cannot directly respond the utterance. It causes the first speaker to repair the previous utterance by saying the information that is looked for by the interlocutor. Here, the interlocutor is the other who initiates the repair called as other-initiated. He said the question Who?

which makes the speaker should respond to the question. Furthermore, the speaker is the one who solves the problem by presenting the information needed by the interlocutor, and this situation is called self-repair. The example above is the example of other-initiated self-repair, one of the types of repair.

Another significant term in repair analysis is called repairing segment. Repairing segment refers to the segment of utterance that repairs the trouble source. In other words, repairing segment is the segment which contains the information that is missing in the previous conversation. Taken from the previous example, the repairing segment is Sarah’s

brother. It is the information which is needed by the speaker in the conversation.

b. Types of Repair

Levinson (1983: 340) mentions that according to Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks there are four types of repair including self-initiated repair, other-initiated repair, other-initiated other-repair, and self-initiated other-repair. Self-self-initiated refers to the repair that is made by the speaker him/herself, meanwhile if the repair is made by another person, it is called as other-initiated. As cited in Roberta (1987: 14-16) repair procedures are grouped in two separate classes: self-repairs, those in which the problematic item is produced and corrected by the same interlocutor; and other-repairs, in which the problem is addressed by a participant other than the one who has produced it. The description of each definition can be seen below.

1) Self-initiated self-repair

In a self-initiated self-repair, the trouble source is the speaker him/herself and he/she repairs it. Here, the speaker corrects his/her utterance which likely contains the right information for the interlocutors, such as in the utterance “His birthday is celebrated on June [pause] on July.”

From the example, it can be seen that the speaker becomes the trouble source. He/she pauses his/her words after he/she said the word

After initiating the problem, he/she also becomes the one who solves the problem by saying the word July. The word July here has a function as repairing segment for replacing the previous word used.

The problem is placed in the information which is delivered by the speaker. It makes he pauses the utterance for a while because he feels uncertain. Actually, if he said June there is nothing problematic. However, he then changed it to July to give the interlocutor the right information about it.

2) Self-initiated other-repair

The trouble source in self-initiated other-repair is made by the speaker in the conversation, but the interlocutor is the one who resolves the problem as stated by (Chaika, 1982: 87) that people often get lost of word; so they ask for help to their speaking partner to find a suitable or correct word that they need. The situation is also found in this type of repair. The example below illustrates the example of self-initiated other-repair.

Michael : For myself and the children. Every three weeks we have terminally ill children that come to..uh..

Oprah : To the house. Michael : Yes, yes. (Rheisa, 2014: 48)

In the conversation, it can be seen that Michael gets blank ideas in the middle of talking. For that reason, Oprah then helps him to complete his utterance by providing the answer. Here, Michael initiates a trouble while Oprah as his interlocutor solves the problem in the conversation.

Another example of self-initiated other-repair is also presented in the following discussion.

A : Korean government has a scholarship program for foreign students; the name of the program is KG….. What is that? I suddenly forget it.

B : KGSP, Korean Government Scholarship Program. There are two participants involve in the conversation above. A as the speaker is having the difficulty to find the abbreviation he/she is going to say. Then A says What is that? I suddenly forget it as a repair initiation. It signals that A needs his partner help to find the words. B as A‟s partner responds him/her by giving the necessary information. Here, A initiates a repair while B is the party who resolves the repair. The example above is named as self-initiated other-repair

3) Other-initiated self-repair

People sometimes should deal with the trouble in a conversation including mishearing and misunderstanding about what is said the partner of speak. In this case, it may cause the other-initiated self–repair where the interlocutor causes the repair completion which is done by the speaker. The following is the example of other-initiated self-repair.

A : Hey the first time they stopped me from selling cigarettes was this morning.

B : From selling cigarettes?

A : From buying cigarettes. They said uh. (Schegloff via Liddicoat, 2007: 174)

In the case above, B causes a trouble by saying „from selling cigarettes?‟ then A as the speaker solves the trouble by answering A‟s question. B proposes the question in order to prevent a misunderstanding

which can occur in the conversation. Here, A gives B the information which is needed. A similar case also can be seen in the following example.

A: When should we collect the paper? B: What?

A: When should we collect the paper?

In the conversation, it illustrates other-initiated self-repair where A as the speaker supposed to say the same thing twice to resolve the problem initiated by B as the interlocutor. B asks What? which causes A must give the same information. Here, B initiates repair by asking the information to A. Then, A provides the information needed as an action to solve the problem.

4) Other-initiated other-repair

The last type is other-initiated other-repair where the interlocutor notices the problem and revises it for the speaker. The subsequent conversation illustrates other-initiated other-repair.

A: The latest iPhone product is fantastic, but iPhone 6 is expensive. B: You mean iPhone 7, don‟t you? The latest product is iPhone 7. As the speaker, A does not realize that he/she makes an error about the information he/she said. B as the interlocutor notices the error and then resolves it right away. The interlocutor revised the word iPhone 6 because it is wrong considering that the latest product of iPhone is iPhone 7.

Unlike the other types of repair, the initiation is absent in other-initiated other-repair. Sometimes, the trouble source cannot be noticed before the interlocutor replaces the repaired segment with the repairing segment.

Comparing with self-initiated self-repair where the speaker tends to pause the utterance for signaling the initiation. In other-initiated other-repair, it is hard to find it.

c. Patterns of Repair Completion

Zhang in 1998 and Tang in 2011 proposed 10 patterns of repair completion in totals. The patterns are classified in the further discussion below: 1) Replacement

Replacement is a pattern in which the speaker changes one word in the previous utterance with the new one. The speaker changes it to make the utterance more appropriate with the context. The speaker adjusts the interpretation but still tries to maintain the previous structure, for example in “The data shows, proves the hypothesis is true.”

The speaker substitutes the word shows to proves for adjusting the context of the utterance. Actually, the word shows can be used for completing the utterance. However, the speaker adjusts it to make it more suitable with the purpose of the utterance.

2) Modification

As its name suggest, modification is done by modifying the utterance by adding more information about the utterance. It can be seen in “I think we will compile the taskin short time, very short time.”

The speaker adds the adverb very to give an explanation that the task should be compiled in a very short time. Here, the speaker inserts a new constituent to modify the previous information. The new constituent has a

function to revise the old utterance. The speaker initiates and solves the repair by modifying or altering the constituent that is needed to be changed.

3) Abandonment

Abandonment is aiming to discard the old part of utterances and entirely change it with something new. There is a part neglecting in this following example “You know it is good if -- Why don’t we talk about something else?”

The illustration shows how the speaker abandons the previous expression. Then, he starts to create new utterance. In a conversation, sometimes people just would like to leave a certain information or topic behind and produce another topic to talk about.

4) Reorganization

In a repair, reorganization means to rearrange the syntactic pattern of the previous utterance. The example below illustrates how reorganization found in a conversation.

Shen : Its telephone number can you tell us?

Qin : Ah.. Telephone number.. I can‟t [remember..] Shen : [Oh]

Qin : [because] I’m at working place making this call Shen : Oh.

Qin : Uh, my home, the telephone number is left at home. (Zhang, 1998: 90)

In a daily conversation, sometimes a speaker is unable to arrange the pattern correctly. It is caused by some factors which make the organization turns out disorderly. The example above shows that a reorganization pattern occurs. The speaker says incomplete information in his utterance. However, in

the end, the speaker reorganizes all of the utterances to make it complete and his partner can get all of the information.

5) Correction

In correction, the speaker is doing a repair in order to adjust the phonemic or morphemic, here what matters are the corrections on how the speaker mispronounce or misapply some words in their utterances. Then, he/she changes it to make it correct, as in the utterance “The recruitment

/ˈspes.ɪ.faɪ /, /ˌspes.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃ ə n/ is really hard.

The speaker changed the way he pronounces /ˈspes.ɪ.faɪ / to

/ˌspes.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃ ə n/. The correction occurs because the speaker mispronounces

the word. He/she adjusts it by replacing the old way to pronounce the word.

6) Specification

Specification is used to specify the utterance in order to make a clearer utterance. Kitzinger (2013: 245) provides an example of specification. Here is the example “There‟s rumors going around school you know like crazy. People on their floor think that we are having an affair, the three of us.”

In a conversation, a speaker should give the interlocutor clear information related to the topic talking about. Occasionally, a speaker uses pronoun in his/her utterance which is confusing. For that reasons, he/she sometimes needs to specify a thing to make it clearer. As shown in the example, the speaker specifies his/her word we to the three of us to make his/her utterance clearer for his partner. Here, the speaker repairs his/her old word with specifying the pronoun refers to.

7) Elaboration

Elaboration has a function to make an explanation about a concept used in utterance in order to make the interlocutor understand the context. Tang (2011: 105) illustrates an example of elaboration. Here is the example “Then, the performative hypothesis, in this aspect, is not defensible, unable to hold truth completely.”

People can have a conversation with everyone. They can talk with their friends, their colleagues, or even someone who has different background. In this case, sometimes a speaker should adapt the words he used while talking with others. The main goal of doing it is for giving the best information which is easily understood by his partner. Here, elaboration is one of the patterns of repair which can prevent a misunderstanding occurs in a conversation by explaining the concept used. We can notice in the example, A as the speaker has an initiation to define what defensible is. It seems A prevents his partner‟s confusion in case he/she does not have any idea about what defensible is. A repairs his utterance by elaborating the words he said. 8) Exemplification

In a conversation, sometimes people have to provide some examples related to the topic that is discussed. Here, exemplification has an aim to give example(s) that explains the thing which is discussed. An exemplification can be clearly seen in the following example “The former presidents of Indonesia, like Soekarno, Soeharto, and B.J. Habibie are well-known for people around the world.”

People always have an interesting conversation with others. Sometimes for discussing a certain topic, people need to mention several examples to explain the topic discussed. The exemplification is aimed to give example(s) which makes the speakers in a conversation become more aware with the topic. Here, the speaker mentions three names of former presidents of Indonesia as an exemplification for repairing his old utterance. It is hoped that the interlocutor is more familiar with the topic discussed.

9) Rewording

Rewording is one of the patterns of repair which has a function to introduce new words to replace the old message in the previous utterance. The following example shows the example of rewording.

A : I believe that they understand the rules well, but they pretend to have no idea about what‟s going on.

B : Yeah, they do know about it, but they choose to not for taking advantages from us.

In order to emphasize the situation, the interlocutor utters the word

know which is synonymous with understand in the conversation. Here, rewording has a function to express an idea using different words. This pattern occurs because of a language has vocabularies which allow people to use some words to express a similar thing.

10) Restructuring

Restructuring is aimed to arrange the structure of the utterance to make it right. Tang (2011: 102) proposes an example of restructuring in the utterance “I hit you, I mean, you hit me.”

The speaker restructures the misplaced words in the utterance. He switches the subject and object‟s position in order to make it right. In a conversation, it occurs when a speaker initiates the problem by saying the wrong structure because of some reasons. Here, the speaker instantly repairs it for saying the right utterance.

d. Factors Initiating a Repair

In daily life, it is almost impossible to have a flawless conversation with others. People face some obstructions which force them to do some repairs in their utterances. Sometimes, the factors of repair are because of a misheard utterance, a misunderstanding, unclear intention, or even the hidden motive in a conversation. Some troubles mentioned are the most common factors that caused repair to occur in the everyday conversation. Every factor leads to a different effect on how people react to revise the utterances.

The factors like misheard utterance, misunderstanding, and unclear intention tend to be easily found in an „ordinary conversation‟ where it does not discuss a specific context. It is in line with Heritage (1998: 2) who says that „ordinary conversation‟ is forms of interaction which are not confined to specialized settings or to the execution of particular tasks. Meanwhile, another factor like a hidden motive which appears in a repair completion is more likely found in an institutional talk like a news interview. Nevertheless, other factors such as misheard utterance, misunderstanding, and unclear intention are also still can be found in this type of talk.

3. Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.

Anderson Cooper 360 is an American TV news talk show that has been broadcasted in CNN since March 28th, 2008. It is hosted by the American journalist Anderson Cooper. It is also broadcasted around the world on CNN International. Anderson Cooper 360 is broadcasted live from CNN's Time Warner Center studios in New York City or on location from the site of a breaking news event, airing Monday through Thursday at 8:00 pm to 10:00 pm, and Friday at 8:00 pm to 9:00 pm.

In this research, the researcher uses one of the episodes entitled

Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. In this episode, Donald Trump is given some questions related his to political campaign, USA‟s position in NATO, nuclear policies, and other issues in this show.

In the beginning of the talk show, Anderson as the host asks Trump about his campaign manager who was in the middle of controversy for grabbing a female journalist. The host also questions Trump about his opinion related to NATO where USA is considered as the most important member. Some audiences also have a chance to ask questions to Trump related to other topics as well.

4. Previous Study

There are some research that have been conducted on the topic of repair. Some of them are as in the following.

a. An Analysis of Repairs in the Interactive English Program Broadcast by Radio PTPN Surakarta (Muchammad Ismail, 2007)

Three scripts of the Interactive English Program Broadcast by Radio PTPN Surakarta were employed as the data of this research. The researcher used a theory of repair of conversation analysis by Schegloof, Sacks, and Jefferson‟s classification of repair. The data of the research were collected from the program broadcasted. The objective of the research was to identify the aim of each repair initiation and analyze the types of repair occurred in the broadcast.

The result of the research shows that the repairs among the hosts and the callers occur in several classifications, and in the process of repair, there are some reasons initiate the repair including morphological error in the conversation, mishearing the utterance, blank the words out, and unclear utterance.

b. A Conversation Analysis of Repair in The Oprah Winfrey Show: a Special Episode with Michael Jackson (Nadya Sivanya Rheisa, 2014)

The script of The Oprah Winfrey Show: a Special Episode with Michael Jackson conversation was employed as the data source of this research. The researcher developed a theory from Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks since their 1977, the researcher also applied several previous studies from Mandarin repair as her guidance to write the thesis, for example Zhang and Thang‟s patterns of repair. The data of the research were collected from watching the talk show, and listing the repair that occurs in the talk show in a table. The

objective of the research was to identify the types and patterns that are found in the talk show.

In order to answer the research question, Rheisa employed Schegloff,

Jefferson, and Sacks‟s four basic types repair as the approach. The data was

analyzed by looking at the data of repair that is collected from watching the talk show. The result of this investigation showed that the repair devices that the speakers adopt to repair their speech were including replacement, correction, restructuring, addition, specification, elaboration, exemplification, rewording, and restructuring.

Comparing to this research, the previous research only employed two objectives for each. The first previous research for the example, it only identified the aim of each repair initiation and analyzed the types of repair occurred in the broadcast. Similar with the first one, the second research only proposed two objectives. The objectives of the research were to identify the types and to classify the patterns that are found in the talk show. Meanwhile, this research employs three objectives including identifying the types of repair, explaining the patterns of repair, and describing the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show. In the other words, this research is the combination between both previous researches. The researcher combines all of the objectives and makes a more comprehensive analysis on repair.

B. Conceptual Framework

To conduct this research, the researcher uses a descriptive-qualitative approach. The researcher applies theories of conversation analysis to analyze

repair in the conversation among the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360.

In this research, the researcher focuses on three objectives including types of repair, the patterns of repair, and the factors of repairs. Firstly, the researcher uses Schegloff, Sacks, Jefferson‟s classification of types of repair. They divide the types into four; self-initiated self-repair, self-initiated other-repair, other-initiated self-other-repair, and other-initiated other-repair. Secondly, to explain the patterns of repair, 10 patterns which are categorized by Zhang in 1988 and Tang in 2011 are used in the research. Those types are replacement, modification, abandonment, reorganization, correction, specification, elaboration, exemplification, rewording, and restructuring. Finally, misheard uterrances, misunderstanding, unclear intention are accused as some factors initiating repair.

The data of a conversation analysis, especially repair, would be best taken from a daily conversation or unscripted conversation where it displays real conversation. Therefore, the object of this research is one of the episodes in Anderson Cooper 360. In fact, Anderson Cooper 360 can serve the data of repair into this research. There are repairs done by the participants in the talk show, i.e. Anderson Cooper and also Donald Trump as a guest. In line with the explanation, the researcher presents the diagram to illustrate the conceptual framework.

Figure 1. Analytical Construct

Conversation Analysis

Sequence Organization Repair Turn-taking Adjacency Pairs

Types Patterns Factors

Anderson Cooper 360:

Donald Trump CNN

Milwaukee Presidential Town Hall

Episode Schegloff, Sacks,

Jefferson, 1977

1. Self-initiated self-repair 2. Self-initiated

other-repair 3. Other-initiated

self-repair 4. Other-initiated

other-repair

Zhang, 1988 & Tang, 2011 1. Replacement

2. Modification 3. Abandonment 4. Reorganization 5. Correction 6. Specification 7. Elaboration 8. Exemplificatinn 9. Rewording 10. Restructuring

Misheard uterrances, misunderstanding,

unclear intention

A Conversation Analysis of Repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode

26

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD

A. Research Type

The research employed a descriptive-qualitative method where the result of this research was in a form of descriptive text. This is in line with Hancock, Ockleford, and Windrigde (2009: 7) who state that qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena. That is to say, the research which was in a descriptive form contains the explanation regarding the results of the research.

The results of the data analysis of repair phenomena in the conversation among the participants in the talk show were presented in the form of lingual units, e.g. words, phrases, sentences, rather than in the form of numbers. It is in line with Hancock, Ockleford, and Windrigde (2009: 6) who says that qualitative research focuses on reports of experience or on data which cannot be adequately expressed numerically. The fact that the data were presented in the form of lingual units is clearly emphasizing Vanderstoep and Jhonston‟s statement (2008: 167) in which the purpose of qualitative research is more descriptive than predictive.

B. Form, Context, and Source of the Data

Bungin (2007: 103) states qualitative data are usually in the forms of sentences, utterances, and short stories. For that reason, the data of the research were in the form of utterances uttered by the participants in the

talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. The utterance which contains the trouble source was always considered as the data. The researcher gained the data from the transcript of conversation among the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.

As the research used qualitative method which contains the descriptive text as the result, the data were in the forms of lingual units i.e., words, phrases, clauses, and sentences uttered by the participants involved in the talk show. The contexts of the data were acquired from the dialogues between the participants in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.

By watching the talk show video namely Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, the data of this research were collected. The data source was an episode of the talk show

Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town House Episode that was downloaded from the internet.

C. Research Instrument

In a qualitative research, the researcher was considered as the key instrument as Creswell (2009: 175) said. For that reason, the primary instrument in this research was the researcher herself. In exploring the data, the researcher used the secondary instrument that was a data sheet. The data sheet was in the

form of a table containing the classification and the descriptive data from the analysis in order to support the primary instrument.

Table 1: The Form of the Data Sheet for Types, Patterns, and Factors of Repair Uttered by the Participants in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode

Note:

A: Anderson Cooper CO: Correction

T: Donald Trump SP: Specification

Q: Questioner EL: Elaboration

SISR: Self-initiated self-repair EX: Exemplification SIOR: Self-initiated self-repair RW: Rewording OISR: Other-initiated self-repair RS: Restructuring

OIOR: Other-initiated other-repair MH: Misheard utterances

RE: Replacement MU: Misunderstanding

MO: Modification UI: Unclear Intention

AB: Abandonment OT: Other

RG: Reorganization

No Conversation

Types Patterns Factors

Explanation

SI OI

S R O R S R O R R E M O A B R G C O S P E L E X R W R S O T M H M U U I O T

1. A: Your campaign manager, Corey Lewandowski charged with simple battery for grabbing a reporter by the arm. Will he continue as your campaign manager? T: Yes, he will. I looked at the tape. I looked - it was my tape. It was at one of my places.

√ √ √ Trump initiates a repair by himself in the middle of the conversation. In this repair, he specifies his words when he was talking about the tape that showed his campaign manager accused for grabbing a reporter because the previous words seemed unclear regarding which tape that he was talking about. He repairs his words with

saying „it was my tape‟. This

type of repair is called as a self-initiated self-repair.

D. Techniques of Data Collection

The steps of the data analysis were as follows: watching the video of the talk show, scrutinizing the transcript of the conversation, creating the data sheet, and classifying the raw data into the data sheet. The data collection was started by watching the video of the talk show in order to find repairs that occurred in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town House Episode. Secondly, the researcher scrutinized the transcript of the conversation in the talk show which is provided by the talk show‟s website. Finally, the researcher used the data sheet for compiling all of the data after the data were classified.

E. Techniques of Data Analysis

In the book of Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theory and Methods, it is stated that:

“Qualitative data analysis can be defined as working with data, organizing it, breaking it into manageable units, synthesizing it, searching for patterns, discovering what is important and what is to be learned, and what the researcher will tell others.” (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982: 145)

According to the statement above, the techniques of data analysis are followed by some steps. All the data found in the conversation among participants in the talk show were arranged in the data sheet. They were classified based on their types and patterns. There were four types of repair, i.e. initiated repair, self-initiated other-repair, other-initiated self-repair, and other-initiated other-repair. Then, the data were organized into its patterns. Lastly, the researcher determined factors which initiate the action of repair in the conversation that occurred in the

talk show. After the data were classified, then they data were analyzed, discussed, and lastly reported in the research.

In analyzing the data, the researcher looked closely at the categorization. The researcher avoided the mistakes on placing the data into the improper criteria. After that, discussing the data is aimed to have a result that is adequate for another researcher who is doing the similar topic. Lastly, the researcher wrote all of the data in the form of research as the action of reporting the data.

F. Trustworthiness of the Data

In order to check the trustworthiness of the data, the researcher used two methods. They are triangulation and peer debriefing. Triangulation is a technique for checking the trustworthiness of the data by utilizing something outside the data to verify the data or to compare them (Moleong, 2001: 128). In doing the triangulation, the researcher was supervised by a supervisor and two friends from the same major who have the same interest. Besides, peer debriefing was managed to check the research findings.

31 CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

As stated in the background of the research, the research is intended to identify the types of repair employed by the participants in the talk show, explain the patterns of repair completion uttered by the participants in the talk show, and describe the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.

This chapter consists of two parts namely research findings and discussion Research findings are presented in the table of data findings that covers the types, patterns, and factors which initiate the repair found in the research. Meanwhile, the discussion part explains the types and patterns of repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode

as well as the description of the factors which initiate the repair in the talk show.

A. Findings

The findings of the types, patterns, and factors which initiate the repair are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Types, patterns, and factors which initiate the repair found in

Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode

No Types Patterns Factors

1. Self-initiated self-repair

Replacement a. Misheard utterance b. Misunderstanding c. Unclear intention d. Others:

1) Changes in the discussed topic

2) Attempt to take a floor 3) Blank ideas

4) Attempt to give details 5) Emphasis on a statement 6) Wrong choice constituent 7) Incorrect information

delivery Modification

Abandonment Reorganization Specification Elaboration Exemplification Rewording Others:

1. Repetition 2. Completion 2. Other-initiated

self-repair

Elaboration Others:

1.Repetition 2.Completion

Based on Table 2, not all of four types of repair proposed by Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks in 1977 were found in this research. Only two out of four types were found; they were self-initiated self-repair and other initiated self-repair. Meanwhile, from ten patterns suggested by Zhang (1988) and Tang (2011), the researcher only found eight patterns. They were replacement, modification, abandonment, reorganization, specification, elaboration, exemplification, and rewording. However, the researcher also could find two other patterns in

Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode. They were repetition and completion. In addition, not all patterns were found in each type in this research. There were ten patterns found in self-initiated self-repair like shown in the table above while there were only three

patterns including elaboration, repetition, and completion which can be found in other initiated self-repair.

Concerning the third objective related to factors which initiate the repair in

Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, the researcher could find ten factors which cause the repair to occur in the talk show. They were misheard utterance, misunderstanding, unclear intention, changes in the discussed topic, attempt to take a floor, blank ideas, attempt to give details, emphasis on a statement, wrong choice constituent, and incorrect information delivery.

In order to deliver the information, the speakers used some particular patterns in which lead them to carry their purposes in the conversation. For example, when they were dealing with misheard utterance they used repetition to solve the problem. Elaboration, replacement, and, repetition were also used to prevent some misunderstanding that occurred in the conversation. Speakers who dealt with unclear intention used specification, replacement, repetition, abandonment, elaboration, and exemplification to clarify their utterances. In the conversation, abandonment was used to change the discussed topic while repetition has a function to take a floor in the conversation. In addition, completion, modification, abandonment, and reorganization were used to help the speakers when they got blank ideas in the middle of conversation. Speakers who would like to give detailed information used abandonment, exemplification, elaboration, completion, and specification. In doing their utterances, the speakers also tried to emphasize their statement by using replacement, modification,

abandonment, and also rewording. In repairing the wrong choice constituent, the speakers used repetition, reorganization, replacement, and abandonment. Lastly, replacement was used in correcting the incorrect information delivery.

All of the results that were found in the research definitely have an association with the object which is observed. There were only two types which could be found in the research. It occurred because the speakers in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode tend to speak longer when their partners wait their turn wisely. In addition, the patterns and factors which are also found in the research are also influenced by the topics and the speakers‟ aim when doing the conversation.

B. Discussion

1. Types of Repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode

a. Self-initiated self-repair

As the speakers in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode, both Anderson Cooper and Donald Trump initiate and solve repairs in the conversation by themselves. Here, they are the one who causes the trouble and also who tries to fix it by doing a repair completion. The following is an example of self-initiated self-repair.

Trump: I don't think he knew her. I mean, based on what I heard, I don't think he really even knew who she was. (datum 7)

In the example above, Trump is initiating a repair while he was talking regarding whether his campaign manager, Corey Lewandowski, knew the female journalist or not. Here, Anderson asks Trump with regard to his campaign

manager who is involved in an accident where he is suspected for grabbing a female journalist. In this case, it can be seen that Trump actually has no error in his utterance. However, he modifies his old utterance in the conversation. By doing so, Trump solves a repair that is initiated by him in the beginning.

When delivering his thought, Trump presents complete information by clearly saying „I don’t think he knew her‟ in the conversation. However, sometimes an error occurs in the speaker‟s mind while there is no one can anticipate it. In the example, Trump repairs the old utterance by slightly modifying it without changes the main information that is delivered. On the other hand, there is also a repair that occurs because the speaker cannot give his/her interlocutor complete information. The example can be seen below.

Anderson: But why retweet (pause) why retweet somebody? (datum 34) Anderson pauses when he is asking a question to Trump related to Heidi Cruz‟ photo which is re-tweeted by Trump in his twitter account, in this case he as the speaker is initiating a trouble in his utterance. As the speaker, he is also the one who finally solves the trouble by completing his own words. It occurs because he as the speaker in the conversation sometimes gets blank for a while before finds the words that are needed to be said. Like the previous example, here is another example of self-initiated a self-repair found in this research.

Trump: The Republican Party is doing - it's a phenomena. (datum 88) In the example above, Trump is caught to not finish his old utterance. Here, by doing such an action, he initiates a problem in his words. If he continued his words, it is nothing problematic. However, he prefers to start the whole new

utterance „it’s a phenomena‟ instead. Trump resolves his problem by saying the new utterance in the conversation. In the other cases, a speaker in a conversation also initiates and solves a repair in the conversation because he/she feels that he/she should present the detail information to his/her interlocutor. It can be said that it is the speaker‟s obligation to do so. An example of repair initiated by the speaker‟s aim to give the detail information can be seen as follow:

Trump: He doesn't have to do it. He doesn't have to support me. (datum 86)

In the conversation, Trump gives detailed information regarding the topic which he discussed. Trump gives his opinion about his political rival, Ted Cruz, whether he should support Trump or not. He initiates a trouble by saying „He

doesn’t have to do it‟ in the beginning. There is a possibility in Trump‟s mind that this utterance seems confusing for the audience who does not know about the context. Here, Trump solves the trouble by specifying his utterance „He doesn’t have to support me’. In this new utterance, it clearly shows that „do it‟ in the first utterance refers to „support me‟.

In daily conversation, sometimes people also make a mistake by choosing a wrong constituent which caused them must repair their words. In this research, the researcher also found a self-initiated self-repair which occurs because of this reason. The example below illustrates the case.

Anderson: Brian has a question for you tonight. He says he's - he likes Governor Kasich but he's still undecided - so Brian. (datum 36)

In a talk show, sometimes there is a part where the audience also can ask the guest. However, before the audience can give their question, the host should

introduce who the questioner is. From the example above, it can be seen that Anderson as the host does his duty to introduce the person who will give the question. In the example, it seems Anderson chooses the constituent wrongly by saying „He says he’s‟ in his utterance. The researcher noticed that there is a trouble initiated by Anderson because he instantly repairs his own utterance right away after it. He then repairs the trouble by saying „he likes‟. Here, Anderson has

done a self-initiated self-repair. b. Other-initiated self-repair

Unlike a self-initiated self-repair where the speakers notice their own error by themselves and also resolve it right away, other-initiated self-repair occurs because the interlocutor or the other party notices the trouble done by the speaker. Here, each participant in the conversation has their own job to initiate and to solve the problem. The speaker has a duty to resolve the problem that is initiated by his/her interlocutor. The following example shows other-initiated self-repair found in the Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode.

Anderson: You've suggested you might –

Trump: Excuse me, excuse me! I didn't suggest. (datum 6)

From the example above, it can be seen that Anderson as the other party initiates a trouble by stating that Trump actually has suggested that he will press charges a female journalist who grabbed himself in the middle of his campaign agenda. Hearing Anderson‟s statement, Trump immediately responds it by clarifying his statement. Here, Trump solves the repair that is initiated by

Anderson. In his utterance, Trump makes a repetition in showing his idea. Another example of other-initiated self-repair also can be seen as follow:

Anderson : The state attorney's a Democrat

Trump : Excuse me, excuse me. Oh, really? (datum 8)

Similar with the previous case, here Trump solves a trouble which is initiated by Anderson as his interlocutor. Anderson as the other party is initiating a repair by stating a statement that makes Trump strongly denies his statement regarding who is better to resolve the problem occurs in Middle East. Here, Trump solves the problem which is made by the Anderson. He repeats the word „Excuse me’ to resolve the trouble source. This type of repair is called as other-initiated self -repair. In this research, the researcher also found the other example of this type of repair.

Anderson : So you have no problem with Japan and South Korea having nuclear weapons?

Trump : At some point we have to say, you know what, we're better off if Japan protects itself against this maniac in North Korea, we're better off, frankly, if South Korea is going to start to protect itself, (datum 25) The example shows an example of other-initiated self-repair done by the speakers in the talk show. Here, Anderson asks Trump a question related to his opinion about Japan and South Korea for having nuclear weapons. In order to prevent a misunderstanding occurring in the conversation, Trump elaborates his answer by saying that Japan and South Korea need to take care themselves from North Korea. In this case, the repair is called as other-initiated self-repair because Anderson as the other party makes a problem and Trump as the speaker solves the problem in the conversation.

Another example of other-initiated self-repair is shown in a datum below. Anderson : Do you trust Muslims in America?

Trump : Do I what?

Anderson : Trust Muslims in America? (datum 46)

In the example above, Trump is asked by Anderson regarding his idea whether he trusts Muslims in America or not. However, because of the unheard utterance Trump initiates a problem by saying „Do I what?‟ in the middle of conversation. Trump‟s response definitely has impact to Anderson as the speaker. Anderson then repeats his words in order to present the information that is needed by Trump. By doing such an action, Anderson actually solves the problem that occurs in the conversation. In this case, the type of repair that is found is other-initiated self-repair because the other party is the one who initiates a trouble while the speaker who solves it.

2. Patterns of Repair in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode

From ten patterns which proposed by Zhang (1998) and Tang (2011), the researcher only found eight patterns including replacement, modification, abandonment, reorganization, elaboration, exemplification, and rewording. Besides, the researcher also found two others patterns as well; repetition and completion in the talk how. The explanation in details can be seen in the following discussion.

a. Replacement

In a repair completion, replacement is often used to adjust the interpretation in the conversation. The speaker usually immediately replaces the

old part in order to make the utterance more appropriate with the context. An example is presented in the following datum.

Trump: We had a whole big meeting with a whole group of people, big audience, tremendous audience, and they're all shaking their heads, give me a break, give me a break. (datum 2)

Trump makes a repair in his utterance by replacing the word „big‟ to „tremendous‟ for emphasizing the number of people who attend the set where a suspicious female reporter grabbed him. The word „big‟ in the first utterance

seems to have a similar meaning with the word „tremendous‟ in the second one.

However, according to Cambridge Advance Learners Dictionary, both words have different meanings. In the dictionary, big is defined as large in size or amount. Meanwhile, tremendous is explained as very great in amount. Here, the researcher decided to take the datum in the pattern of replacement because both words are dissimilar. If those words used in the same context, the interpretation would be definitely different. A similar case occurs in the following datum.

Trump: One of the very, very big issues. I think maybe the biggest issue of our time. (datum 16)

Initially, Trump says „the very, very big issue‟. Here, he already initiates a problem. Then, he says „the biggest issue of our time‟ to replace his previous

words. He adjusts his utterance to make it more suitable with the purpose of the utterance. In this case, Trump is talking about nuclear issue which becomes one of his concerns if he was elected as the next president of USA at that time.

b. Modification

Participants in the conversation tend to modify their utterance by adding more information about the utterance. An example of this pattern is presented in the following datum.

Trump: I don't think he knew her. I mean, based on what I heard, I don't think he really even knew who she was. (datum 7)

Trump modifies his previous utterance by adding two adverbs when he is talking about whether his manager, Lewandowski, knows the female journalist or not. He uses the adverbs in order to change the effect of his statement. It has a function to emphasize the intention and the purpose of his utterance. The two

adverbs that are used are „really‟ and „even‟ which are modifying the verb „knew‟

in the utterance above. A similar case also can be seen in the following example. Trump: I want to do that also, and I do want to do that, but I at the

same time we have to recognize we have a serious problem. (datum 42)

In the example above, Trump is discussing about protecting the rights of minority groups, of Muslims, or Sikhs, of Jews, and others inside the United States. Here, he states that he also would like to protect the minority group but according to him the country also faces a serious problem. In this utterance, Trump modifies his words. Initially, he only says „I want to do that also,‟ but then

he adds the auxiliary verb „do‟ in the next utterance „I do want to do that‟. Here, the auxiliary „do‟ is used to give extra force to the main verb.

c. Abandonment

Choosing a topic in a conversation is a speaker‟s obligation. For that reason, sometimes the speakers will instantly abandon the utterance that they

would not like to talk about. In repair completion, the researcher found this pattern as presented in the datum below.

Trump: But to the best of my knowledge, it's Texas. So he made that - I was surprised you didn't correct him actually. (datum 4)

In the bold parts, Trump is going to talk further about the truth of Ted Cruz‟ hometown in the conversation, but he chooses to abandon the statement and repair it with throwing another statement directly to Anderson. From the example above, it can be seen that in a conversation a speaker has an obligation to choose a topic that he/she would like to talk about. In another example below, it also shows the similar case.

Trump: I would have loved to have fired – it would have been much easier than talking to you about this all night long. I'd rather talk about the issues, to be honest. (datum 11)

Trump is disturbed by the discussed topic where it is talking about his leadership skill. Here, he hesitates whether he would like to continue his words or not. In the end, he abandons his previous words and starts with a new complete utterance. In abandonment, there are speakers who simply change the discussed topic like the previous examples. Besides, there are also speakers who choose the constituent wrongly that makes them to do an abandonment. The example is presented in the following datum.

Trump: No. Now let me tell you what's next. No, no. Look, in Missouri, I just - it was just announced I won. (datum 90)

Trump declares that he won election in Missouri in the example. Here, he abandons his previous words „I just‟ because he says the words wrongly. He supposes to say „it was just‟ to deliver his utterance precisely.

d. Reorganization

Organization in a conversation is one of the vital factors to make the partner easily accepts the information. The speakers in Anderson Cooper 360: Donald Trump, CNN Milwaukee Republican Presidential Town Hall Episode also face the organization utterance. Here, they reorganize their words in order to present the clear information. An example is presented in the following datum.

Trump: Health care - we need health care for our people. (datum 62) Here, Trump discusses the importance of health care for people in United States. In uttering his idea, he makes a disorganize utterance. Initially he only says „health care‟ then he resolves it by saying „we need health care‟. It can be said

that he reorganizes his utterance. A similar example also can be seen as follow. Anderson: Do you have a specific, though, for him on - a specific

example that you changed your behavior changed the way you've done something going forward, or learned from something you've done that you didn't like the way it turned out? (datum 96)

Anderson asks Trump a question related to Senator Jeff Sessions who also endorsed Trump in the election. He asks whether Trump changed the behavior because of the senator. In the example, it can be seen that Anderson reorganizes his utterance after makes several errors in the beginning. Here, reorganization has a function to arrange the utterance in order to serve clear information.

e. Specification

In delivering information, a speaker sometimes generalizes the thing that is being discussed. By doing so, it causes the information which is being uttered becomes unclear. For that reason, after a speaker realizes the problem, he/she

95

No Conversation

Types

Patterns Factors

Explanation

SI OI

S R O R S R O R R E M O A B R G C O S P E L E X R W R S O T M H M U U I O T

audience. For that reason, he initiates a initiates self-repair in the conversation.

88.

T: The Republican Party is

doing - it's a phenomena.

√

√

√

Trump initiates a self-initiated

self-repair in the conversation. He simply abandons his words and starts with a new utterance.

89.

T: You know, I'm a very -

I'm an American.

√

√

√

Trump initiates a self-initiated

self-repair in the conversation. He simply abandons his words and starts with a new utterance. Initially, he says „I‟m a very‟ but he probably uses a wrong constituent then he revises it by saying „I‟m an American‟.

90.

T: No. Now let me tell you

what's next. No, no. Look, in Missouri, I just - it was just announced I won.

√

√

√

Trump abandons his previous

words because it is not suitable with the information that will be delivered. Here, he simply initiates self-initiated self-repair.

91.

T: And then I found out

that I got 10 votes less - 10 delegates less than the guy who lost. I beat him rather easily.

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Trump replaces the word „votes‟

into „delegates‟ because the old word has an unclear intention with the context of the

conversation. Here, he initiates self-initiated self-repair.

92.

A: But those are the

rules. I mean, his campaign had a better ground game in

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Trump says the word „those‟

which is unclear for the audience. Then, he specifies his word by saying „I mean, his

96

No Conversation

Types

Patterns Factors

Explanation

SI OI

S R O R S R O R R E M O A B R G C O S P E L E X R W R S O T M H M U U I O T

Louisiana. campaign had a better ground

game in Louisiana.‟ In this case, Trump initiates a self-initiates self-repair.

93.

T: No, I don't know what rules - OK, I don't know, I don't think - I don't call it a ground game. I call it bad politics.

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In this case, Trump rewords the

word „think‟ into „call‟ to emphasize his statement. Both words are synonyms. Here, he initiates a initiated self-repair.

94.

T: Yes. I am somebody - Jim, thank you.

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√

√

Trump forgets to thank the

questioner. That is why he abandons his words to take a moment for a while for saying his gratitude.

95.

T: You know, it's not all about signing executive orders because this is something that came in - that wasn't the way our founders thought that this country was going to win.

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√

√

Because Trump says something

wrongly, he initiates a self-initiated self-repair by abandoning the old utterance and starts with the new one.

96.

A: Do you have a specific, though, for him on - a specific examplethat you changed your behavior changed the way you've done something going

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√

√

Anderson needs time for

reorganizing his words. Here, he initiates a initiated self-repair. In the bold parts, it can be seen that Anderson faces the difficulty to reorganize the utterance. However, in the end, he can resolve and deliver it.

97

No Conversation

Types

Patterns Factors

Explanation

SI OI

S R O R S R O R R E M O A B R G C O S P E L E X R W R S O T M H M U U I O T forward, or learned

from something you've done that you didn't like the way it turned out?

97.

T: Well, I think - yeah, I mean, I have many, many things that I've done.

√

√

√

Trump initiates a self-initiated

self-repair by rewording the words that he utters. Initially, he says „I think‟ then he says „I mean‟ which have a similar meaning. He expresses his idea by using synonyms.

98.

T: For instance, I could have apologized, you brought up - we started this with Corey, my campaign manager.

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√

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In the conversation, Trump

abandons his words because he simply would like to change the topic that is discussed. Here, he initiates a initiated self-repair.

99.

T: Yes, I mean -

apologized - I apologized to my mother years ago for using foul language.

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√

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Trump tries to look for the

words that can be uttered. After two times he chooses the wrong constituent, Finally, he resolves the problem by reorganizing it. Here, he initiates a self-initiated self-repair.

100.

T: They're very strong. They are very - they have great heart.

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√

√

Trump abandons the words „are

very‟ and replaces with „they have a great heart‟ considering he chooses a wrong constituent in his utterance. For that reason,

98

No Conversation

Types

Patterns Factors

Explanation

SI OI

S R

O R

S R

O R

R E

M O

A B

R G

C O

S P

E L

E X

R W

R S

O T

M H

M U

U I

O T

he initiates a initiated self-repair.

99

100