Dick and Carey’s Instructional Design Model

10 2. Conducting Instructional Analysis An instructional analysis is a set of procedure to identify relevant steps for learners to reach the goal. In this step, it is important to examine each step to determine what skills and knowledge are necessary for learners. Thereafter, a designer is required to identify the major clusters of information that learners must recall. 3. Analyzing Learners and Contexts In this step, the designer needs to search for information of learners’ characteristics such as behavior, motivation, attitude, prior knowledge, and also learners’ skills. The designer could administer questionnaire and survey to obtain information about learners’ interest, goal, attitude, and self-reported skills. This step aims to help the designer understand learners’ characteristics and adjust contexts in which learners will learn the skills and use the contexts. 4. Writing Performance Objective The designer writes the objectives, specific statements, and detail descriptions of what learners will be able to do after they complete a unit of instruction. The objectives should begin with the behaviors that are described in the skill statements. 5. Developing Assessment Instruments The n ext step is to develop assessment to measure learners’ ability and performances based on previous objectives. There are four types of tests the designer can create in this section, for instance entry skill test, pretest, rehearsal tests, and posttests. 11 6. Developing Instructional Strategy The strategy in this step refers to varieties of teaching and learning activities. The designer identifies the strategy that is going to be used in order to achieve the goals. The next part is to identify how the strategy is useful in engaging learners to learn. In developing instructional strategy there are five sequences that should be considered. They are indicating the formula of objective, indicating the approach used to pre-instructional activities, indicating the contents to be presented, defining media and time allocation, and reviewing the entire strategy again. 7. Developing and Selecting Instructional Materials Instructional materials refer to media that will be used such as instructor’s guides, learners reading list, power point, and video to produce instruction. Therefore, it is important to select instructional materials that are suitable for learners. It also means that all the instructional materials should help the learners learn efficiently. 8. Designing and Conducting Formative Evaluation of Instruction The designer needs to develop a set of draft evaluations to collect data in order to modify existing instruction and materials. The thing that should be considered in the draft evaluation is the main components of materials such as objectives, entry skills, contents, clarity, size of unit, and sequence. Afterward, the designer will revise the instructions and make it more efficient and effective. The purpose of this step is to pinpoint specific errors in the materials and to correct them. 12 9. Revising Instruction The last step, the designer collects the data from the formative evaluation to find out and to examine the validity of all previous steps. All the data should be synthesized and analyzed in order to locate the potential problem. Afterward, the designer revises and develops the materials revision.

b. Morrison, Ross, Kalman and Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

According to Morrison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp 2011: 14, instructional design is built based on four elements. The four elements are represented as follows: 1. To whom the program is developed? learners’ characteristics 2. What is the material for learners? objective 3. How do the learners learn the subject content or skill? instructional strategy 4. How do the designer determines the learners’ achievement? evaluation procedure These four basic elements can be depicted in the following figure: Figure 2.2: Morr ison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp’s Model of Basic Components of Instructional Design 2011:15 Methods Evaluation Objectives Learners 13 Based on the previous four components identified, Morrison et al. 2011 develop a complete instructional design model into nine stages. The nine stages are: 1. Instructional Problem The f irst step in designing process is to identify client’s needs or problem in which the client eager to solve. The designer needs to conduct a need analysis in order to identifying problem and selecting an appropriate solution. The purpose of identifying the problem is to determine whether instruction should be a part of the solution or not. 2. Learner and Contextual Analysis This step aims to identify learners ’ characteristics such as general background, age, learning style, assumption, and work experience. The designer can use observation, questionnaire, and interview to obtain data of learners’ personal and social characteristics. 3. Task Analysis Task analysis is one of the important components. It is used to determine what knowledge and procedures are going to be included in the instructions to help learners master the objectives. In this step, there are three specific techniques for analyzing knowledge and tasks. First, the designer needs to learn how to conduct a topic analysis that is well suited for defining cognitive knowledge. Second, the designer will learn how to conduct a procedural a series of steps. Third, the designer will learn about the critical incident method, which is useful for analyzing interpersonal skills. 14 4. Instructional Objectives In this step, the designer specifies what the learners should achieve or master after completing a unit of instruction. The objective should be grouped into cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains. These objectives also become indicators to evaluate whether the instruction helps learners in solving the problem or not. 5. Content Sequencing In content sequencing, information should be presented in a logical sequence. The designer should present the materials systematically. It is used to help learners catch the ideas efficiently and effectively. 6. Instructional Strategies The goal of the instructional strategy is to design instruction so that learners are motivated to learn. This process requires the designer to create innovative ways to present the materials to the learners. Hence, the learners will integrate their idea with the materials given easily. The instructional strategy should be able to help the learners develop an understanding when studying new materials. 7. Designing the Message In this step, the designer prepares instructional materials by translating the instructional design plan into a unit of instruction. The message in this process means the designer presents the materials in form of pictures or words. Thus, it is important to select appropriate pictures to help the learners understand the instruction.