14 4.
Instructional Objectives In this step, the designer specifies what the learners should achieve or
master after completing a unit of instruction. The objective should be grouped into cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains. These objectives also become
indicators to evaluate whether the instruction helps learners in solving the problem or not.
5. Content Sequencing
In content sequencing, information should be presented in a logical sequence. The designer should present the materials systematically. It is used to
help learners catch the ideas efficiently and effectively. 6.
Instructional Strategies The goal of the instructional strategy is to design instruction so that
learners are motivated to learn. This process requires the designer to create innovative ways to present the materials to the learners. Hence, the learners will
integrate their idea with the materials given easily. The instructional strategy should be able to help the learners develop an understanding when studying new
materials. 7.
Designing the Message In this step, the designer prepares instructional materials by translating the
instructional design plan into a unit of instruction. The message in this process means the designer presents the materials in form of pictures or words. Thus, it is
important to select appropriate pictures to help the learners understand the instruction.
15 8.
Development of the Instruction This part is the process to involve all the elements together in order to
produce instructional materials such as print materials, web pages, and video recording. The designer must consider how to accurately convey the information
to the learners in a manner they can comprehend. 9.
Evaluation Instruments The last step is used to assess learners
’ understanding of the objectives. The designer must develop a set of formative evaluations
to measure learners’ knowledge, skills, and behavior. It is also used to inform the designer or the
instructor how effective the materials are. The stages of instructional design model of Morrison et al. can be shown as
follow:
Figure 2.3: Morr ison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp’s Model of the Instructional
Design Plan 2011:12
16
2. Speaking Skill
In order to be able to communicate with others, certainly, speaking ability is needed. Speaking ability enables people to convey what they want to say to
others. In this part, the writer discusses three basic theories of speaking skill. The basic theories are the nature of speaking, the process of speaking, and teaching
speaking.
a. The Nature of Speaking
Essentially, speaking is different from writing. Hughes 2002 makes distinction about the nature of speech in contrast to writing. Spoken happens
spontaneous, temporary, depending on context, oral, and dynamic. Writing happens plainly, non-temporary, visual, and static. Nunan 2003
states, “speaking is the productive oral skill” p. 64. Speaking as an oral skill is used to convey
information, ideas, and thought in interactions. Speaking can be done at least by two people; they are a speaker and a listener. In speaking activity, the speaker
produces utterances and the listener should be able to understand what the speaker says in their interaction.
b. The Process of Speaking
Learning English speaking skill is not always easy for foreign language learners and for second language learners. As stated by Goh and Burns 2012,
“language learners tend to believe that native speakers speak effortlessly” p. 35. It wants to show that foreign and second language learners face challenges in
speaking process. Basically, the native speakers and the foreign language learners have a difference in speaking process. For instance, the native speakers in their
17 daily conversation speak automatically and produce utterances easily. Meanwhile,
the foreign language learners need to think first what they want to say and sometimes it takes a long time. Former writer Levelt states that
the process of speaking is influenced by the cognitive process as cited in Goh Burns, 2012, p.
35. Levelt’s model explains how the cognitive of language learners produce
speech in speaking performance. Levelt’s speech production consists of three interconnected steps. The
steps are conceptual preparation, formulating, and articulation. The first step is conceptual preparation. Conceptual preparation is a process where the speakers
choose a subject matter or information they want to talk about. The language learners have to think first what information or response they want to say during
the conversation. It ha ppens because language learners’ ability in conveying the
idea related to learners’ background and how well they know about a certain
topic. Second is formulation. According to Garman,
“formulation is a process by which the idea that exist in the speaker’s mind during conceptual preparation are
mapped on to specific words in the speaker’s mental lexicon and strung together” as cited in Goh Burns, 2012, p. 37. This step can be considered as a difficult
part for the language learners because they have to think about the grammar system of the target language. The third one is articulation. The speakers produce
messages in form of sounds through articulation. This step requires the language learners to learn about pronunciation of how some words or sounds are
pronounced.
18 As a result, most of the language learners are afraid to speak because they
are not sure about their pronunciation. For instance, the language learners may know a particular written word in their mind but unable to articulate it because
they are not sure of its pronunciation. Thus, the conceptual preparation thinking about what to say, the formulation how to say words, and the articulation
saying the words loudly in real conversation are three stages that contribute to speech production in speaking process.
c. Teaching Speaking
Teaching speaking activity deals with some principles. Nunan 2003 formulates five principles of teaching speaking. The principles are:
1. Understanding between Second Language and Foreign Language Learning.
The teacher needs to know about learners whether or not they are second language learners SL or foreign language learners FL. Foreign language
learners are those who study English in a country where the English is not used as a language of communication in society. Second language learners are those who
study English in a country where the English is used for communication in the society.
2. Giving Students Practice with Both Fluency and Accuracy.
The teacher provides opportunity for the learners to practice and to encourage them to speak without being afraid to make mistakes. Also, the teacher
helps learners use the target language correctly. Hence, the learners learn to use the language fluently and accurately.
