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In a circumstance where speakers of various languages are having the same necessity gather in one speech context, code-switching allows them to accomplish
their purpose effectively and understand each other better. He also states that “it is unusual for a speaker to have command of, or use,
only one such code or system” Wardhaugh, 1992: 103. Since, bilingualism and multilingualism are the norm for many people throughout the world, Gardner’s
1997 idea above is supported by Wardhaugh’s 1992 that people have to select a particular language whenever they speak and they may also choose to switch
from one language to another language or to mix the languages. In addition, Wardhaugh 1992 also states that people might not be aware that they switch or
using certain code to discuss a particular topic. The next definition of code-switching was written by Hoffmann 1991. She
says that code-switching “involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistic varieties within the same utterance or during the same conversation” Hoffmann,
1991: 110. Based on the above definitions, the writer defines: “code-switching as a
common behavior of people using more than one language in the same conversation in bilingual or multilingual situations”.
b. The Types of Code-switching
Every linguist has their own point of view in defining code-switching as well as in classifying the types of code-switching. Since the various points of view
might be influenced by certain factors, the differences in classifying the types of code-switching are considered a common and acceptable phenomenon.
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According to McCormick 1994, based on the length of juxtaposed utterances, there are six types of code-switching. They are diglossic code-
switching, situational code-switching, metaphoric code-switching, conversational code-switching, single-word code-switching and integrated loanwords.
Diglossia is a feature of speech community rather than individuals Holmes, 2001:30. In a diglossic situation, two languages are used for different functions in
a speech community. In addition, one language is used for H or high function and the other is for L or low function. Therefore, diglossic code-switching means a
kind of code-switching which has the longest juxtaposed utterance that is a whole discourse.
Situational code-switching is “the codes may be perceived as different but be equally valued, and similarity the situations may be differentiated on grounds
other than prestige” McCormick, 1994:582. The third type is metaphoric code- switching, which occurs in “whole conversation, each within one role
relationship” McCormick, 1994: 581. It happens where there are no clear illustrative reasons explaining the specific switches. There is no new person, no
change in the context or the topic Holmes, 2001: 41. The next type is conversational code-switching. It differs from situational
code-switching “in that its occurrence is not dependant on a change of interlocutors’ topic or situation” McCormick, 1994: 583. In addition, there are
three smaller types of conversational code-switching. First, it is called whole sentence code-switching. According to Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for
Advanced Learners , whole sentence is “a sequence of words constituting a
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statement, question, or a command that begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop when written down” Sinclair, 2001. Thus, this type of code-switching
occurs in the form of a full sentence. The second type of conversational code-switching is clause code-switching
which happened within a sentence in form of a clause. According to Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners
, clause is “a group of words, consisting of a subject and a predicate including a finite verb, that does not
necessarily constitute a sentence” Sinclair, 2001. Clause “may be either a sentence independent clause or a sentence-like construction included within
another sentence dependent clause” Nordquist. 2001. The last type of conversational code-switching is phrase code-switching. According to Collins
Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners , a phrase is “a group of words
forming a unit of meaning in a sentence” Sinclair, 2001. Single-word code-switching is also known as lexical borrowing. It
“generally involves single words – mainly nouns – and it is motivated by lexical need” Holmes, 2001: 42. People borrow words from another language to
express a particular thing or term when there is no word available in the language they are using. For example, Indonesian often say printer instead of alat cetak.
The last type of code-switching is integrated loanwords, which occur between morphemes McCormick, 1994: 581. It is a mixture of two morphemes
of different codes to express a term, for example meng-update instead of memperbaharui
since update is more popular and frequently used.
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Gumperz 1982, as cited by Gardner and Chloros 1997, identifies 2 categories of code-switching: situational and conversational code-switching. He
states, situational code-switching “refers to language switches which coincide with a change of interlocutor, setting or topic” 1997: 361 while conversational
code-switching does not necessarily correspond with those changes but is caused “by factors within the conversation itself” 1997: 361. When a change carried a
particular suggestive purpose, it is called metaphorical code-switching as the subdivision of conversational code-switching.
Additionally, Wardhaugh 1992 shares similar classification about the types of code-switching to Gardner’s 1997. He describes two types of code-switching:
situational and metaphorical code-switching. He defines situational code- switching as changes that occur according to the situation. In this kind of code-
switching, no topic change is involved and the speakers are aware of the change. On the other hand, when a change of topic requires a change of language, it is
called metaphorical code-switching. A bit different from those two points of view, Hoffmann’s 1991 shows that
there are many types of code-switching by providing some examples. The first type is intra-sentential switches that contain changes within a sentence. While,
when the changes occur between sentences, it is called inter-sentential switches. The last type is called emblematic switching which includes “items such as tags or
exclamations serving as an emblem of the bilingual character” Hoffmann, 1991: 113.
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c. The Reasons for Code-switching
