generalized reinforces, and schedule of reinforcement. However, the writer only discusses shaping since it is the most appropriate theory toward the study.
Shaping is “a procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross approximations of the behavior, then closer approximations and
finally the desire behavior itself” p. 450. For example, a child learns how to
wear t-shirt, the parents give reward like a candy. When he is successfully finished, he feels happy and does the same thing afterwards. In this example, three
conditions are present: the antecedent, the behavior, and the consequence. “The antecedent refers to the environment or setting in which the behavior takes place.
The behav ior refers to the child‟s behavior of dressing himself. The consequence
refers to the re ward” p. 450-451.
4. The Influence of Personality Toward Motivation
Beebe et al. 2009 revealed that the word “Personality” comes partly from
“what people do and say at various times, but it is also partly a matter of how people do what they do the style that brings a unique and personal touch to their
actions” p. 41. By knowing the statement above, the writer can conclude that personality
is the base of people behavior. Behavior influences people on the way they do or act. In behavior, the writer finds out that motivation plays a role in it especially
direct behavior toward a goal. “Human behavior involves some purpose or goal. It
is often held that behaviors take place as a result of the arousal of certain motives. Thus motivation can be defined as the process of activating, maintaining and
directing behavior towards a particular goal ” Anonymous, n.d..
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
5. Theory of Motivation a. Definition of Motivation
Motivation is a central to the study of psychology. Motives arouse and direct the individual‟s behavior toward some goal Sternberg, 1988, p. 201.
According to Helbert L. Petri 1979, motivation is a concept which is used when describes the forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior
p. 3. Its concept is also used to explain differences in the intensity of behavior. Robert C. Beck 1978 stated that motivation is concerned with three
contemporary determinants: “Motivation is broadly concerned with the contemporary determinants of
choice direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behavior. When two or more behaviors are equally possible, one is chosen and the
organism persists in this behavior with more or less vigor until some anticipated goal is either achieved or some other goal becomes more
dominant
” p. 24.
1 Approach and Avoidant Motivation
In approach motivation, Higgins stated that people do things because of something they
“want, desire, or need” as cited in Franken, 2002, p. 3. This is often conceptualized in terms of specific goal object; for example, people want to
eat because they are hungry and people will drink because they are thirsty. In the contrary, in avoidant motive, people do things to avoid something; for example
people who are afraid of insects or snakes, feel a strong and immediate need to distance themselves from those objects. They will avoid places in which those
animals live. In the contrary, anxiety my not immediately elicit a specific goal object because people who are anxious are often unable to specify the source and
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
they attempt to deal with it by finding a safe place. For example, a person who experiences anxiety at the party, without knowing its reason, might decide to
leave from that place. LeDoux suggested
that “humans and animals are designed or have evolved to err on the side of being cautious because it is better to treat something
as a threat and survive than to take the risk that it is not and die ” as cited in
Franken, 2000, p. 4. Watson and Clark stated
that “not all people are equally anxious; some are more anxious from birth
” as cited in Franken, 2000, p.4. Consequently, they are more likely to engage in avoidant behavior. Even thinking of certain activity is
adequate to make them anxious. For example, a person might avoid trying new food for fear of getting sick; a person might not meet new person for avoiding to
have conflicts. On the contrary, Zukerman revealed that “in extraverts and
sensation seekers waste more time in approach behavior.” For example, a person might go to a new restaurant to taste new foods or even take risks such as
travelling, climbing and so on as cited in Franken, 2000, p. 4. It can be summed up that approach motivation is people‟s motivation to do
something they want, desire, and need. In approach motivation, they tend to reach their specific goal objects. In contrast, avoidant motivation is people‟s motivation
to do things in order to avoid something. They have power to safe themselves and keep away from dangerous or harmful situation.
2 Human motives
In 1985, David C. McClelland divided human motive into four systems.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
They are achievement motive, power motive, affiliative motive, and avoidance motive. However, I only discuss achievement since it is appropriate and deals
with the analysis in the study. According to Murray‟s needs, achievement is to accomplish something
difficult such as to manipulate or organize physical objects, human beings or ideas, to overcome obstacles, and to increase self-regard as cited in McClelland,
1985.p. 46. In addition, Huffman, Vernoy, and Vernoy 2000 revealed that achievement motivation is “the need for success, for doing better than others, and
for mastering challenging tasks” p. 399. Murray defined “need for achievement as a desire and tendency to overcome obstacle, to exercise power, to strive to do
something difficult as well and as quickly as possible ” as cited in Beck, 1972, p.
317. In 1978, John Jung stated
that “achievement comes from social factor such as prestige, and the recognition and admiration of other people
” p. 135. In addition, John Jung also stated
that “we are not content merely to perform tasks, but rather we strive for certain standards of mastery, accomplishment, and
achievement of doing them.” For example, a craftsman practices to carve the statue in order to attain level of perfection p. 135
On the other hand, Braun and Linder explained that high achievement motive deals with strong attempts to accomplish something with god or bad
feelings. In fact, fear of failure is the major negative components of the achievement motive: the grater the fear of failure, the lower the achievement
motive as cited in Huffman et al., 2000, p. 369.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
According to Jung, attaining the goal is considered to two factors that have effect on achievement motive. They are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the desire to perform an act for its own sake. While, extrinsic motivation is the desire to perform an act because of external
reward or avoidance of punishment as cited in Huffman et al., 2000, p. 377. Deci revealed that behavior that is undertaken because of some external
reward is considered to be extrinsically motivated, and behavior that is undertaken because of long-
term goals or an individual‟s established preferences is considered to be intrinsically motivated as cited in Bodzin et al., 1983, p. 383.
Bodzin et al. 1983 stated that the difference of extrinsically and intrinsically motivated:
Behavior that is extrinsically motivated depends upon the external conditions that support it: it persists only as long as external rewards and
punishments continue, and it varies with their magnitude. Intrinsic behavior persists despite setbacks and frustrations. Most of our daily
behavior is a mixture of both kinds of motivation p. 383.
Ryan and Deci 2000 stated that extrinsic motivation refers to do something because it leads to separable outcome or gives reward. On the other
hand, intrinsic motivation leads someone to do something because it is interesting or enjoyable p.2. For example, a person who is doing hisher assignments can be
motivated by extrinsic factors such as praise from the instructor, and admiration from friends or a student works on his assignment because he fears of parental
sanction or to avoid punishment from the teacher. On the other side, a person who is doing a crossword puzzle in a newspaper maybe motivated by intrinsic factor
such as seeking pleasure.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
According to Deci and Ryan 2000, intrinsic motivation remains an important construct which reflects the natural human propensity to learn and
assimilate. Nevertheless, extrinsic motivation is argued to vary considerably in its relative autonomy and can reflect external control or true self-regulation p. 1.
It can be summed up that achievement motive is motivation to accomplish something difficult and challenging. Achievement motivation is also need to be
successful, to be the best than the other people such as mastering the difficult task and finishing the obstacle. There are two factors that have effect on achievement
motive. The first is intrinsic motivation in which people desire to do things for pleasure and satisfaction. The second is extrinsic motivation in which people
desire to do things to get reward or avoid punishment.
3 Emotional Motivation
Young noted t he word “emotion” comes from the Latin stem “emovere”
to move as cited in Jung, 1978, p 314. Emotions are affective feelings accompanied by psychological changes that often influence behavior. Worchel
Shebilske, 1989, p. 417. Furthermore, Izard and Tomkins revealed that emotion has relation to motivation:
Motivation is used by many people as being equivalent to determination. Meanwhile, “emotions—like habits and expectations—can be shown to
determine or influence behavior.” Consequently, emotions can accompany motives and amplify their effect on behavior as cited in McClellan, 1985,
p. 128. Paul and Anne Kleingginna pointed out four definitions of emotion such
as emotion gives rise to affective experiences of pleasure and displeasure, emotion stimulates us to generate cognitive explanations, emotion triggers a variety of
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
internal adjustment, emotion elicits behaviors, expressive, goal-directed, and adaptive as cited in Franken, 2002, p. 239.
Frijda noted that emotion relates to motivation and motivation relates to emotion. It means emotion and motivation are connected to one each other as
cited in Franken, 2002, p. 238. Moreover, Edward J. Murray 1964 stated that emotions are physiological and psychological responses that influence perception,
learning, performance and powerful reactions that have motivating effects on behavior p. 49.
On the other hand, James Lange stated that “emotion” describes our
visceral or “gut” reactions to the things around us. He also believes that emotions are the perception of certain internal bodily changes as cited in Kasschau, 1995,
p. 147: My theory…is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the
exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur IS the emotion. Commonsense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we
meet a bear, are frightened and run; we are insulted by a rival, are angry and strike….The more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we
cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble….Without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter would be…pale,
colorless, destitute of emotional warmth p. 147. Young stated that emotion can be aroused by negative feelings and
positive feelings as cited in Jung, 1978, p. 291: The study of emotions has focused on strong emotion such as fear or
anger, which also involves negative feeling states, whereas less attention has been directed toward positive feeling states such as joy, happiness, or
love. Furthermore, earlier interpretations of the role of emotion emphasized the disruptive and disorganizing consequences of emotion p.
291.
Furthermore, emotion can turn as motives or causes of subsequent behavior in
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
which anger can lead us to be aggressive or fear can produce impaired coordination Jung, 1978, p. 314. Leper revealed
that “emotion and motive are quite similar and emotion might be regarded as a type of motive
” as cited in Jung, 1978, p. 314. In this study, I only discuss negative feeling of emotion such
as fear and anger which are appropriate with the analysis. Fear is an aversive state of organism aroused by stimuli that signal a future
aversive event Beck, 1978, p. 184. Emotional of fear can be produce by nearly sudden and intense stimulus Murray, 1964, p. 51. Shaver, Schwartz, Kirson, and
O‟Connor stated that “fear is the emotional state that results when we interpret events as potentially harmful or threatening to the self; it most commonly involves
the anticipation of physical harm, loss, or failure ” as cited in Worchel
Shebilske, 1989, p. 436. Fear is also an emotional reaction to a situation and a causal factor which
influences other behavior Jung, 1978, p. 330. In addition, Izard and Tomkins suggested that fear can be conceptualized as an emotional system that is sensitive
to cues, unlearned or learned, that signal physical punishment pain as cited in Franken, 2002, p.272. Hebb stated that fear is product of learning:
Fears can be viewed as unlearned or innate as well as product of learning. Many situations involving surprise, unexpected or uncertain events, and
novelty are capable of producing fearful behavior such as frenzy, immobility, or agitation. For example, a monkey that is shown artificial
head of monkey which is attached to the end of sticks becomes fearful as cited in Jung, 1978, p.320.
Edward J. Murray 1964 stated that anger is another emotion that may be
produced by certain situation on an innate basis. Anger is a powerful emotion; it can create havoc in our personal and social relationships and can even sometimes
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
lead to dangerous consequences p. 52. Saberi roy 2009 explained that anger is a feeling of displeasure and pain which have negative social consequences:
Anger, best defined as a feeling of displeasure, irritation or hostility can have different dimensions with mild to violent responses. Anger
management is an important issue as stress, anxiety, irritation are persistent in modern life. Anger being primarily manifested negatively and
being directed against someone, it is a social response and have social consequences. Psychological theories consider anger as a response to pain.
Thus when we feel a sort of pain or irritation or go through unpleasant feelings along with a realization of a potential threat, we tend to get angry.
Feeling of pain or displeasure can be followed by a feeling of threat. For example, when a partner says or does something unpleasant, we get angry
because we feel pain and we also feel that the situation might threaten or jeopardize the partnership n.p..
Goodenough noted that the typical cause of anger is frustration
—anything that interferes with some goal-directed activity as cited in Aiken, 1969, p.141.
It can be summed up that emotions can determine or influence behavior. Emotions are also the perception of certain internal bodily changes. Emotion can
turn as motives which are aroused from negative feelings such as fear and anger.
4 Social Motivation
Social motives are learned from the interaction toward other people. In addition, Lahey 2009 stated that “social motive is the most important motive in
social psychology which studies individuals as they interact with others” p. 540. In 328 B.C., Aristotle wrote “Man is by nature a social animal…..” as cited in
Lahey , 2009, p. 540. Social motives or the psychogenic needs dominate and influence most our everyday behavior Murray, 1964, p. 98. Murray divided
descriptive list of social motives or the psychogenic needs are divided into twenty as cited in Mc Clelland, 1985, p.46-47.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
The first is abasement which is aimed to submit passively to external force such as injury, blame, and punishment. The second is achievement. It is aimed to
accomplish something difficult such as to manipulate or organize physical objects, human beings or ideas, to overcome obstacles, and to increase self-regard. In other
words, achievement motivation is “the need for success, for doing better than others, and for mastering challenging tasks” Huffman, Vernoy, and Vernoy,
2000, p. 399. The third is affiliation. It deals with desire to positive simulation, affection from others, and social comparison.
The forth is aggression. It is the willingness to engage in physical and psychological acts of harm to control the actions of other people Franken, 2002,
p. 213. It deals with emotion and desire to fight or injury another even kill other people and to revenge and injury. Baron and Richards explained that aggressive
motive is the result of overt forms of aggression, or behavior toward the goal of injuring another living being who wishes to avoid such treatment. It means that
aggression motive occur in order to feel secure by hurting others as cited in Baron, 1995, p.391.
Robert C. Beck 1978 stated that aggression behaviors are those that are intended to do physical or psychological damage to someone p. 292. Moyer
identified eight kinds of aggression. They are predatory aggression, intermale aggression, fear-induced aggression, territorial aggression, maternal aggression,
irritable aggression, sex-related aggression, instrumental aggression as cited in Franken, 2002, p.209.
In irritable aggression, “people are able to show their attack and
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
destructive behavior because of frustration, pain, deprivation, or any other stressor
” Franken, 2002, p. 209. In the other hand, Miller noted that frustration sometimes leads to aggression and is just one of the causes of aggression as cited
in Beck, 1978, p.293. In 1978, Beck revealed that frustration refers to the blocking of a goal directed activity and some behavioral events. It means there is
feeling within an individual of being blocked in attempting to satisfy needs. Frustration usually gives bad affect p. 195.
Berkowitz suggested that frustration generates aggressive inclinations to the degree that it arouses negative affect as cited in Franken, 2002, p.219:
Situation in which people do not act aggressively when frustrated fail to arouse negative affect. Whether situation arouses negative affect depends
partially on our cognitive processes —for example, on whether we perceive
that we have been block deliberately or accidentally. If we perceive that someone else deliberately blocked us from reaching our goal, we are more
likely to react with aggression p. 219.
The fifth is autonomy. It deals with independence or freedom to act according to impulse. According to Pontifex 1960
, freedom means “the absence of constraint or hindrance; it implies that some force or tendency is seeking to
exert itself, and that nothing is preventing it from doing so ” p. 9. On the
contrary, Skinner 1971 stated that freedom is a “possession.” A person escapes
from or destroys the power of a controller in order to feel free, when he feels free, he can do what he desires p. 32.
Alfred Jules Ayer argued that freedom is in the form of free action which refers to action rather than choice as cited in Clark, 1973, p. 87. For example, in
certain circumstance when a man is angry, the action he probably takes is shouting Clark, 1973, p. 89. On the other hand, Ayn Rand looked at freedom of
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
action within a social context and defines freedom as a series of individual rights as cited in Clark, 1973, p.137. The right considers as the right to life and
considers to be directed toward self-realization: A “right” is a moral principle defining and sanctioning a man‟s freedom of
action in a social context. There is only one fu ndamental right: a man‟s
right to his own life. life is a process of self-sustaining and self-generated action; the right to life means the right to engage in self-sustaining and
self-generated action —which means: the freedom to take all the actions
required by the nature of a rational being for the support, the furtherance, the fulfillment and the enjoyment of his own life Clark, 1973, p. 139-
140. The sixth is counteraction. It is a need to make up failure, to overcome
weaknesses, and to maintain self-respect and pride on high level. The seventh is defendance. This need is like a self-defense. It is used to defend the self against
assault, criticism, and blame. The eight is deference. This is a need to praise, adore or admire something which is honorable and worth. The nine is dominance.
It is a need to lead and influence others by commanding, giving suggestion, and persuading. The en is exhibition. It is a need to make any impression, amuse, and
to show off to others. The eleventh is harmavoidance. It is a need to escape from fear. Fear of
sickness, pain, death, and other dangerous situations. Fear is “an aversive state of organism aroused by stimuli that signal a future aversive event
” Beck, 1978, p. 184. Pain means the awareness of some desire or tendency which is frustrated
Pontifex, 1960, p. 93. The twelfth is infavoidance. It is a need to avoid of being ashamed because
of failure, humiliation, and embarrassment. The thirteenth is nurturance. It deals with the need to help others. The fourteenth is order. It deals with the need to put
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
thing in order. Everything should be organized based on the standard or the way it be. The fifteenth is play. It is a need to have fun by doing some enjoyable
activities. The sixteenth is rejection. It deals with the need to reject something we do not like. The s
eventeenth is sentience. It is a need “to seek and enjoy sensuous impression”. The eighteenth is sex. It is a need to have intimacy or sexual
intercourse. The nineteenth is succorance. It is a need to get affection from others. The last need is understanding. It is a need “to ask or answer general question, to
be interested in theory, to speculate, formulate, analyze, and generalize”.
B. Theoretical Framework
