12 a literal translation from some languages 13 the form of the verb ending in
–ing Whether they are translated into Indonesian, they shall have the following
equivalents: 12. sebuah terjemahan harfiah dari beberapa bahasa
13. bentuk dari kata kerja yang berakhiran –ing Table 2.11 Modifier before NH
English Indonesian Noun headword
English Indonesian
a literal translation
from some languages 1 2
3 4
5 Sebuah
terjemahan harfiah dari beberapa bahasa
1 2
3 4
5
Table 2.12 Modifier after NH
English Indonesian NH
English Indonesian
The form
of the verb ending in –ing
1 3
4 5
Bentuk dari kata kerja yang berakhiran –ing itu
2 3
4 5
The Table 2.11 shows one modifier that comes before the noun head because the word a meaning denotes quantity and the other modifiers come after
the noun head, whereas all the modifiers in the table 2.12 come after the noun head because this NP has no modifier that denotes quantity. If we look at the last
two examples number 12 and 13 carefully, the Table 2.12 shows the modifier in each number consist of NP as well, examples some language in number 12, and
verb ending in –ing number 13. The word languages and verb are the noun heads
of each. In this study, the writer call this kind of noun headword sub-noun headword.
14. seorang wanita muda yang kaya 1
2 3
yang membawa sebuah payung yang bagus di tangan kananya. 4 5
According to the conclusion, the wirter obtain from the Indonesian noun phrase from number 1 to 13, the writer have the equivalent of the example number
14 as follows:
14. a young rich lady with a beautiful umbrella in her right hand.
1 2 3 4
5
All of the modifiers in L1 should come after the noun head word “wanita”,
except the noun determiner a meaning “sebuah” because it denotes quantity. Verhaar on his research “phrase syntax in contemporary Indonesian: noun
phrase” mentioned that there are two big types of Indonesian NP based on preliminary descriptive studies. The following presents what is hopefully a fairly
exhaustive inventory of the various types, most of them discrete, some of them overlapping.
a. Noun-plus-noun phrases; to be subdivided as follows: i.
noun-plus-noun phrases according to semantic relations from attribute to head includes possessive relations, agentive
relations, objecti ve relations, “inalienable” possessive relations,
and relations other than all these, ii.
action noun phrases, iii.
actor noun phrases, iv.
noun-plus-noun phrase with serial attributes, v.
noun-plus-noun phrases with multiple attributes vi.
appositions, vii.
noun-plus- “copying” semi attributes,
viii. noun phrase with classifier “heads”.
b. Noun-plus-non noun phrases; to be subdivided as follows: i.
noun-plus –anaphoric,
ii. noun-plus-deictic,
iii. noun-plus-interrogative,
iv. noun-plus-quantifier,
v. noun-plus-adjectiveverb,
vi. noun-plus-relative clause,
vii. noun-plus-
“adverbial” attribute, viii.
noun-plus-noun noun serial attribute, ix.
noun-plus- non noun multiple attribute, x.
“headless” yang phrase. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
According to Dwijatmoko, generally the rules of the expansion of a noun phrase NP in Indonesian, follow the constituent rules as Chomsky 1986, 5
stated before. The rule subsystems consist of lexicon, syntax categorical and transformational components, phonological form component and logical form
component, and the system of principles consists of X-bar, goverment, theta, case, binding, and control theories Chomsky 1982, 4-7; Determiner Phrase DP,
Quantifier Phrase QP and Genitive Phrase GP as specifiers. For examples below Chomsky 1986, 5.
Research by Dwijatmoko formulated the rules of NP structure as follow: a. NP
N’ Specifier The specification rule for an NP is tentatively formulated in rule NP
N’ Specifier. The rule, however, cannot hold all NP expansions in Indonesian, for an
NP can contain a: Table 2.13 Another sample of INP and ENP with literal meaning
Indonesian form Literal Translation
English form 1. Buruh muda itu
2. Itu buruh muda
worker young the the worker young
‘the young worker ‘the young worker
dua buah perusahaan roti baru itu
two thing company cake new the
‘the two new bakeries
buku biologi
tebal saya
book biology thick my ‘my thick biology book
b. N’ N’ Adjunct
An NP may have an adjuct as one of its elements. An noun can expand to another noun and an adjunct. A noun adjuct can be an adjective phrase AP,
another NP, a prepositional phrase PP, or an adjective clause AC. An noun may expand to another noun and an AP:
- Mahasiswa pendidikan cantik
- Student education beautiful
- ‘a beautiful eduaction student’
An noun may also expand to another noun and an NP: -
Sepatu balet -
Shoes ballet -
‘Ballet shoes’
An noun may also expand to another noun and a PP: -
Petani kopi kaya di kota Curup -
Farmer coffee rich in town Curup -
‘the rich coffee farmer in Curup town
c. N’ N Complement
A noun subcategories for its complement Radford, 1988, 365. A complement is inherent to the noun and is essential to the meaning of the noun.
The noun mahasiswa ‘student’, petani ‘farmer’, and persediaan ‘stock’ in NP
have pendidikan ‘education’, kopi ‘coffee’, and makanan ‘food’ respectively as
their complement. Mahasiswa pendidikan
Student education Education student
Petani kopi Farmer coffee
Coffee farmer PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2.1.4 English Learning in Indonesia
Indonesia is one of the countries which is part of the expanding circle Kachru, 1997. Meanwhile, English Language Learning in the process of
transition from a prescriptive to a more communicative style of teaching where the language’s form is less important that its use in context and curriculum is
more student-centered. Here, the education system in Indonesia uses curriculum 2013 which also make English becomes one of the main subjects for learners in
Indonesia.
2.1.4.1 Status of English in Indonesia
English has become a required language for learners in many countries the world, particularly in Asia. Like many other countries in Asia, English is taught
as a foreign language in Indonesia. However, learning English outside of English- speaking countries i.e., in a foreign language setting like Indonesia can be a
challenge. A minimum of learners feel they have opportunities to use English in their everyday lives.
2.1.4.2 English as Foreign Language
With the global expansion of English as the language of international communication, another expansion is taking place that of teaching and learning
English as a foreign language EFL. English as a foreign language EFL is taught in non-English-speaking countries where English is not the official
language such Indonesia, China or Japan and the others countries. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2.1.4.3 Students’ Access to English
Hedge 2003 argues that one is not sure whether Krashen’s coprehensible input hypothesis “facilitates intake” in EFL since “it is difficult o know exactly
how any learner will actually use the input available” p. 204. However, “it can be seen as an input-
enabling activity.” p.204. No one can deny the fact that the using of gadget, newspaper, television can help greatly in “exposing” EFL learner
to English and especially when the class time is limited. Indonesian EFL learner have a good access to English by using electronic, vicual media and many more,
but the influences is still minimum not as much.
2.1.4.4 Teaching of EFL in Indonesia
Teaching English as foreign language can be highly demanding and requires teachers’ understanding of not only the nature of reading and teaching
methodology, but also the nature of learners and the context in which teaching takes place. EFL is generally used to refer to situations in which English is neither
generally used for communication, nor used as the medium of instruction e.g., China, Korea, Thailand and also Indonesia.
Related to teaching English as foreign language, Nation and Newton 2009, p. 1-2 have stated that language learning should consist of four roughly
equal strands: PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
1. Learning through meaning-focused input; that is, learning through listening and reading where the learner’s attention is on the ideas and
messages conveyed by the language 2. Learning through meaning-focused output; that is, learning through
speaking and writing where the learner’s attention is on conveying ideas and messages to another person
3. Learning through deliberate attention to language items and language features; that is, learning through direct vocabulary study, through
grammar exercises and explanation, through attention to the sounds and spelling of the language, through attention to discourse features,
and through the deliberate learning and practice of language learning and language use strategies Language focus learning.
4. Developing fluent use of known language items and features over the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing; that is ,becoming fluent
with what is already known. fluency development The opportunities for learning language are called strands because they
can be seen as long continuous sets of learning condition that run through the whole language learning.
2.1.5 EFL Learners
According to Bern 1990b; Paulston 1992, foreign language teaching means that L2 is not used as one of the primary means of communication in the
country where it is learned, i.e., there is reference to the speeh community outside PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
this country. They speak about EFL when English, is taught in countries where it has little or no internal communicative function or sociopolitical status Nayar,
1997 p. 31. It is just a learners subject with no recognized status or function at all Richard, Platt, Weber 1985.
This means that EFL learners, get in touch with English in the classroom, and hardly anywhere else outside it. EFL learners have very limited opportunities
to develop their interlanguage and gradually bringing it nearer to the target language following the second language acqusition SLA paradigm Ellis, 1994;
Krashen 1985. The classification of whose English and how many Englishes have been
kicked around in both ESL and applied linguistics circles for several years now, leading to fruitful eye-opening and reevaluation of concepts such as nativenon-
native English e.g. Nayar 1994, standardnon-standard English e.g. Strevens 1992, dial
ects and varieties. Kachru’s three concentric circles of English have come to be accepted as a standard ontology for defining and categorizing
Englishes into Inner Circle native, Outer Circle English as a Second Language and Expanding Circle English as a Foreign Language varieties.
According to Yoneoka and Arimoto 2000, both major native varieties of English and the English Language Teaching ELT world in general have been
accused of a subtle brand of linguistic imperialism, which has resulted in increased pleas and requests for acknowledgement of different Englishes as
varieties in their own right. These trends are welcome to those who would support PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Expanding circle
an ecology-of-language paradigm with its tenets of multilingualism, human rights, equality, maintenance of languages and cultures and promotion of foreign
language education over a basically monolingual, imperialistic diffusion-of English paradigm Tsuda, 1994.
However, the sociopolitical agenda of the world Englishes paradigm is at odds with the concentric circle view of Englishes for several reasons. If the
concentric circle terminology at face value is taken, the description is like fig. 2 with circles that are actually concentric; i.e., they have the same center; nested in
the order of Inner, Outer and Expanding.
Figure 2.2 General Interpretation of Concentric Circles Terminology In addition, figure 2.2 shows a recent revision Kachru 1997: 213 of the
circles diagram, an arrangement which would be more aptly termed “overlapping” than “concentric”. Particularly, the expanding circle is reserved for those second
language speakers using EFL primarily to communicate with individuals from other countries outside of the parent country.
Outer circle
Inner circle
