Figure 16 Index of bomb and poison fishing in 2004 and 2005.
Source: Household survey April-June 2004, total N = 854; and Resource user survey July-October 2005, total N = 100.
5.3 Status of Fishery Sustainability
The state of fishery sustainability of studied islands is important to notice, while the communities studied are dependent on fishery, especially on reef
fishery. Between 54 and 89 of working population are fishermen see Chapter 4. The result of this assessment may represent a point of reference on the
different aspects of each island studied, i.e. economic, ecological, social, and institutional aspects. The different situations of fishery sustainability can further
be explained by levels of social capital, collective action and institutions or rules- in-use of the communities in each island. They will be examined on the
subsequent chapters.
0.05 0.1
0.15 0.2
0.25 Tarupa
Rajuni Kecil Rajuni Besar
Barrang Caddi Kapoposang
Is la
n d
Index Year 2004
Bomb Poison
0.3 0.6
0.9 1.2
1.5 Tarupa
Rajuni Kecil Rajuni Besar
Barrang Caddi Kapoposang
Is la
n d
Index Year 2005
Bomb Poison
Taking coral
Evaluating fishery sustainability can be done in two different approaches. A top down approach is done by employing a defined-score and criteria for the
fishery system evaluation. There are three different methods of this approach, i.e., RapFish method, FAO Code of Conduct Compliance, and International
Instrument Compliance Adrianto et al. 2005. Another is a bottom-up approach, that involving stakeholders to evaluate their fishery. This approach assesses
“’local accepted’ fishery sustainability by examining local sustainability indicators, their importance, […] and assess sustainability state indicators using a cognitive
approach involving stakeholders in the area studied” ibid: 11. Marine environment is complex and largely uncertain. This uncertainty
leads to recognition by scientists that their expertise is not sufficient to understand the ecological process. Thus, knowledge of resource users i.e.
fishers is increasingly acknowledged. Their knowledge is generally tacit knowledge that is “knowledge that is not easily expressed, usually based on
skills and experience Wilson 2005: 3. Likewise, a self-governance on common-pool resource like reef fishery is
shaped by fishers’ perception on future resource stock, i.e. coral reefs and fish stock. Resource users tend to take benefits from resources at present time, and
care less for the future. It is because “[i]ndividuals attribute less value to benefits that they expect to receive in the distant future, and more value to those expected
in the immediate future” Ostrom 1990:34. It means that fishers discount future benefits. When users perceive low discount rate, they will likely to manage
resource for long-term benefit. Conversely, when it is high, users have normally less consideration on future benefit.
This study is used a formal methodology called multi-criteria analysis MCA. MCA is a general approach that can be used to analyze complex
problems involving multi-criteria Mendoza and Prabhu 2003. The analysis is done into two parts. The first part is to generate a set of sustainability indicators
of fisheries. The second part of analysis is to evaluate the sustainability indicators in terms of their importance by ranking each indicator using a 5-point scale. The
next analysis examined each indicator by judging their current condition relative to their perceived target or desired condition Mendoza and Prabhu 2004,
Adrianto et al. 2005. At this point, the sustainability indicator score SIC is calculated.
Generation of Indicators
The first part of analysis is to generate the set of indicators and assess their importance judged by stakeholders. This study used a set of sustainability
indicators that consisted of four variable criteria of sustainability indicators, namely ecological-criterion indicators 5 or 6 indicators, differed in each islands,
economic-criterion indicators 5 indicators, social-criterion indicators 4 indicators, and institutional-criterion indicators 3 indicators Table 41. These
indicators were modified from fisheries sustainability indicators formulated by Pitcher 1999 and Adrianto et al. 2005, which were presented to stakeholders
for discussion on their relevance and assessment. They were slightly modified, for example stakeholders added the indicators of market price and of fishing
gears in relation with economic sustainability. In sum, most stakeholders did not reject or modify these indicators. Note that one indicator i.e., tourism did not fit
to Barrang Caddi Island.
Table 41 List of sustainability indicators for the fishery system
Criteria No Indicators
Operational definition
Economy 1
Market price of fish Fish price compared with historical pattern
2 Market of fish
Market of fish is mainly local, national, or international.
3 Income from fishing
Importance of fisheries sector in local economy 4
Volume of catch Volume of production compared with historical pattern
5 Fishing gears
Technology and variation of fishing gears 6
Tourism Contribution of tourism for local economy and
employment Ecology 7
Distance to
fishing grounds
Distance to fishing grounds compared with historical pattern
8 Size of fish caught
Size of fish caught compared with historical pattern 9
Number of fishing fleets Number of fishing fleets compared with historical
pattern 10 Coral reef ecosystem
Living coral reef compared with historical pattern 11 Destructive fishing gears Use of cyanide and bomb to fish
Social 12 Fishers’
community growth
Growth compared with historical pattern 13
Environmental knowledge
Level of knowledge about environmental issues and the fishery
14 Education level Education level compared to population average
15 Conflict status Level of conflict in fishing i.e., fishing gears, outsider
fishers, other sectors Institution 16 Law enforcement
Formal law enforcement monitoring, persecution, punishment in fishery violation
17 Inclusion or influence of fishers in management
Inclusion of fishers in management of fishery or marine national park or marine tourism national park
18 Formal and informal fishing regulations
Fishing regulations endorsed by government or fisher community, in terms of restriction in fishing gears and
access to fishing grounds Source: Modified from Pitcher 1999, Adrianto et al. 2005, and stakeholder discussions
September-October 2005.
Weight of Indicators
The following results show the importance of indicators which are judged using a 5-point of values by the stakeholders. The results are examined in three
parts: average weight; relative weight; and differences on group interests.
Average Weight
According to stakeholder values, all islands regard economic criteria of sustainability as the most important than other criteria Figure 17. It can be seen
from the average weight value, which is calculated in a range from 4.23 to 3.71, showing extremely important to moderately important. However, indicator of
tourism in particular is valued as less important. The next criterion important is institutional criteria, with average weight value from 3.99 to 3.71. The following is
social criteria, which is calculated in a range from 3.58 to 2.68. The ecology criteria is valued lowest, with average value from 3.40 to 3.10.
Figure 17 Estimated average weight for fishery sustainability indicators.
Note: 1 – less important, 3 – moderately important, 5 – extremely important, and 2, 4 – intermediate value.
Tarupa
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
Economic Ecological Social
Institutional Criteria
A v
er ag
e wei gh
t
Rajuni Kecil
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
Economic Ecological Social
Institutional Criteria
A v
e rag
e we ig
h t
Rajuni Besar
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
Economic Ecological Social
Institutional Criteria
A v
e rage
we ig
h t
Barrang Caddi
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
Economic Ecological Social
Institutional Criteria
A v
e rage
we ig
h t
Kapoposang
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
Economic Ecological Social
Institutional Criteria
A v
er ag
e wei gh
t
Relative Weight
Based on the calculation of relative weights, it can be clearly seen that some indicators are rated higher than others. But the difference is also clear
among islands see Figure 18. For example, under the institutional sustainability criteria, indicator 18 i.e., formal and informal fishing regulations is higher than
other indicators under the same criteria institutional sustainability. But it only appears for Tarupa, Rajuni Kecil and Rajuni Besar. On the other hand, Barrang
Caddi and Kapoposang are valued law enforcement higher. It can be explained by the fact that law enforcement at the sea in Barrang Caddi and Kapoposang is
worse than the rest. Indicator 13 i.e., environmental knowledge, under the social criteria of
sustainability, is valued higher in all islands. An important distinction is the indicator 15 conflict status which is valued higher than other indicators in the
same criteria, particularly in Rajuni Besar and Kapoposang. This occurs because these communities often faced fishing conflicts, while most of their fishers did not
use destructive fishing gears while outside fishers often use them in the same fishing grounds.
Figure 18 Estimated relative weight for fishery sustainability indicators
0.00 0.50
1.00 1.50
2.00 2.50
3.00 3.50
4.00 4.50
Economy average
Ecology average
Social average
Institution average
Tarupa Rajuni Kecil
Rajuni Besar Barrang Caddi
Kapoposang
Social Criteria
0.00 0.15
0.30 0.45
Fishing community
grow th Environmental
know ledge Education level
Conflict status
Indicator R
e la
ti v
e w
e ig
h t
Institutional Criteria
0.00 0.15
0.30 0.45
Law enforcement
Inclusion or influence of
fishers in management
Formal and informal fishing
regulations
Indicator Re
la ti
v e
we ig
h t
Ecological Criteria
0.00 0.15
0.30 0.45
Distance to fishing
grounds Size of fish
caught Number of
fishing fleets Coral reef
ecosystem Destructive
fishing tools
Indicator R
e la
tiv e
w e
ig h
t
Economic Criteria
0.00 0.15
0.30 0.45
Market price of
fish Market of
fish Income
from fishing
Volume of catch
Fishing tools
Tourism
Indicator Re
la ti
v e
we ig
h t
Within the ecological criteria of sustainability, indicators of coral reef ecosystem and destructive fishing gears indicators 10 and 11 are valued higher
in most of islands, except in Barrang Caddi. This value corresponds to the fact that Barrang Caddi has half of fishers using poison fishing, and many of their
fishing patrons believe that cyanide fishing is not harmful to coral reefs. Finally, under the economic criteria of sustainability, participants are valued
higher on indicators of market fish price and of income from fishing. On the other hand, the indicator of volume of catch is valued less important, because it is
market price of fish that gives affect to income, rather than volume. Interestingly, participants in most islands perceive lower value on where fish are marketed
indicator 2, which demonstrates that they have low knowledge on the target market of their fish, but understand that some fish are priced higher than others.
However, this situation is not observed in Barrang Caddi, and put higher value on the indicator of market of fish. It clarifies the fact that this island is bordering to
Makassar where some export traders are located.
Group Interests
Furthermore, different stakeholder perceives different value or importance of some indicators. A distinction is shown in the value of indicator destructive
fishing gears indicator 11. Fishers using bomb or poison in Tarupa and fishing patrons in Barrang Caddi perceived this indicator as less important and gave
weight of 1 or 2 see Appendix 6. These islands have the highest incidents and fishers using blast or poison fishing.
Figure 19 represents divergent views of each stakeholder group on the importance of each indicator of sustainability. They are based on average weight.
Local policy maker regards the institutional criterion of sustainability as the highest value 4.26, and the second is the economic criterion of sustainability
3.92. Fishing trader or patron view the highest value on the economic criterion 4.05, followed by the institutional criterion 3.29. This order of rank is also
viewed by fisher group, who valued the economic criterion as the highest 3.96 and followed by the institutional criterion 3.93.
From their average weight, the ecological criterion of sustainability is ranked as the last value for the fishing trader or patron group 2.28 and the local
policy maker group 3.27, and placed on the third rank by the fisher group 3.29. Apparently, the importance of ecological criterion is the least i.e. 2.28 means
less than moderately important by the fishing trader or patron group compared to other groups.
Figure 19 Indicator importance average weight based on group interests. Sustainability Index of Criteria
The next part of analysis is to estimate the “sustainable state” elaborated from the perceived targets or conditions judged by the stakeholders. This
analysis is started by judgments of the stakeholders to score the perceived targets of each indicator followed by the calculation of sustainability index of
criteria SIC. The results are presented in Figure 20. Table data is in Appendix 6. It can be seen that the economic criterion of sustainability is the highest
among other sustainability criteria in Tarupa, Barrang Caddi and Rajuni Kecil, with SIC 3.70, 3.25 and 2.94 respectively. These three islands have more fishers
doing destructive fishing than others. On the other hand, on islands where destructive fishing fishers are limited, the social criterion of sustainability has the
highest SIC, i.e. Rajuni Besar 3.11 and Kapoposang 2.93.
Local Policy Maker
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
Economic
Ecological
Social Inst it utional
Trader Fishing Patron
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
Economic
Ecological
Social Inst it utional
Fisher
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
Economic
Ecological
Social Inst it ut ional
Figure 20 Sustainability index of criteria of fishery system. 5.4 Destructive Fishing and Fishery Sustainability
Resource system in the study sites is characterized by coral reef ecosystem. Taka Bonerate atoll where Tarupa, Rajuni Kecil and Rajuni Besar
islands are located, have the average percent cover of coral colonies 40 to 59 in 1989, and 50 in 2000. Coral reef condition in Kapoposang Island in 2003 has
70 in good condition, while in Barrang Caddi is only 20. Taka Bonerate and Kapoposang have high biodiversity and wealthy of coral reef habitat, contrary to
the coral reef condition in Barrang Caddi. Much of the degraded condition of the reef is due primarily to direct human
conduct e.g., fishing using explosive, poison and muorami. During the surveys in 2004 and 2005, it shows that the use of bomb and poison fishing has been
proliferated during the period, particularly in Tarupa, Rajuni Kecil and Rajuni Besar. The rate poison fishers in Barrang Caddi largely stay unchanged.
Kapoposang remains do not have fishers using bomb or poison fishing. The results from the sustainability index of criteria SIC in each island are
comparable with the rate of destructive fishers.
Tarupa
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 Economic
Ecological Social
Inst it ut ional
Rajuni Kecil
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 Economi c
Ecol ogi cal Soci al
Insti tuti onal
Rajuni Besar
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 Economic
Ecological Social
Inst it ut ional
Barrang Caddi
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 Economic
Ecological Social
Inst it ut ional
Kapoposang
0.00 1.00
2.00 3.00
4.00 Economic
Ecological
Social Inst it ut ional
In Tarupa, the economic criteria of sustainability is high, while there were high
incidents and resident fishers using destructive gears. Rajuni Kecil has high both the economic and social criteria of sustainability.
Rajuni Besar has more balanced on three criteria of sustainability: institutional, social and ecological, but quite low on the economic criteria of
sustainability. There were limited fishers using bomb or poison fishing in 2004, even though in 2005 the number was increasing.
Barrang Caddi is similar with Tarupa, having high economic criterion of sustainability. But it has low in other criterion of sustainability: institutional,
social and ecological. One half of the fishermen in this island has been using poison fishing.
Kapoposang has high on social and ecological criterion of sustainability, but low in economic and institutional.
In general, islands with low rate of destructive fishing have low on the economic criterion of sustainability, like in Rajuni Besar and Kapoposang islands.
On the other hand, islands with high economic criterion of sustainability have high number of fishers using blast or poison fishing, namely in Tarupa, Rajuni Kecil
and Barrang Caddi. Sustainability assessment poses another query about sustainable supply of
the resources such as fish stock. However, the scope of study does not include fish stock assessment that might be affected by coral reef destruction due to
destructive fishing. It is understood that the supply curve in fishery is ‘backward bending’. In such a situation, when demand increases on the backward bending
part of the supply curve, the quantity supplied decreases. This has been studied by Fauzi 2006 who examines the dynamic behavior of live reef fish for food in
two islands situated in South Sulawesi. The results show that when fish price increase, effort and catch will increase rapidly in the long run. However, this
increasing trend is short lived because once the stock level has declined while effort continue rising, the harvest level will decline accordingly.
Chapter 6 Social Capital, Its Investment, and Destructive Fishing
