Ninth category is data analysis technique. It will be based on the analysis techniques found from the studied research reports.
Different from data analysis technique in Sozbilir
’s 2016, in Gul and Sozbilir, 2016 paper classification form which classifies quantitative analysis merely into descriptive and inferential, the
researcher in this research will put every technique as a classification. It aims to depict more precise information on the use of statistical techniques.
Tenth category is sampling technique which is determined based on two types of sampling namely probability and nonprobability. Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen
and Razavieh 2010 differentiate between the two types of sampling. They mention that random sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling belong to
probability sampling. While nonprobability sampling involves convenience sampling, purposive sampling and quota sampling. These are the classification of
sampling techniques. Eleventh category is validation. Validity and reliability are commonly
used for quantitative research as it always depends on measurement. According to Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen and Razavieh 2010 both validity and reliability are
essential in developing and evaluating instruments. Meanwhile in qualitative research, the researchers can use credibility, transferability, trustworthiness and
confirmability. The last category is result. In determining the classification of research
results, the researcher will do the same procedure as in defining the classification of research goals. She will make a list of results from each research report and
then the similar results will be put under one classification. By doing so, it will assist the researcher in interpreting the results of large number of research reports.
5. Classification Area of English
English has been widely used in throughout the world for some purposes. Hence, the number of people learning English becomes greater. Indeed, it results
in the variety of English. Regarding to this issue, Kirkpatrick 2007 has summarized some classifications on the area of English done by some scholars.
The classifications attempt to explain the differences in the ways English is used in different countries. The classification of English can be distinguished through
its roles in language teaching. English in language teaching is viewed in three different roles namely English as a native language ENL, English as a second
language ESL, and English as a foreign language EFL. This explanation has led to Kachru
’s three circles of English. It is composed of Inner-Circle, Outer- Circle and Expanding-Circle. His classification of area of English in the world is
considered as the most common one.
a. Inner-Circle Countries
English as a native language ENL according to Kirkpatrick 2007 can be defined when English is used as the primary language and spoken by most of
the population. Therefore, the United Kingdom UK, the United States US, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland are countries in which English is
spoken as the native language. These countries are then terms as Inner-Circle countries. English within these countries is not only spoken for educational
purpose but it takes part in almost all fields in their people ’s life. They use it for
daily language.
b. Outer-Circle Countries
This second classification as mentioned by Kirkpatrick 2007 is in contrast to the first one. English in Outer-Circle countries is not the main
language. Nonetheless, it is still important as it is used for official language. In other words, it is termed as English as a second language ESL. The members of
this classification are likely to be the ex-colonies of the United Kingdom UK or the United States US in the past. Therefore, they have historical role related to
the emergence of English in their countries. Outer-Circle countries consist of Nigeria, Malaysia, India, the Philippines, Singapore, South Africa and Pakistan.
c. Expanding-Circle Countries
The last classification is Expanding-Circle. It encompasses countries in which English is viewed as a foreign language EFL. Indonesia is one of the
countries in Expanding-Circle which located in Asia. According to Honna 2005 English has spread rapidly in Asia. It can be seen from the increasing number of
people learning English for wider communication. Therefore, English education receives more attention. The role of English in Indonesia is more or less the same
with some countries in Asia and ECC which can be seen through its use in society in general and business, politics, education and media in particular Lauder,
2008. In his study, Lauder 2008: 9 mentions that “currently English is seen as needed for development. It is needed for instrumental reasons, as a tool which
provides access to international market s, scientific knowledge and expertise”.
Kirkpatrick 2007 mentions that many countries in Middle East such as China, South Korea, Russia, Egypt and Japan are parts of this ECC. It is hard to
clearly mention the members of this Expanding-Circle for the reason that EFL users spread all over the world. In short, those which do not belong to Inner-Circle
and Outer-Circle are considered to be parts of Expanding-Circle. Indeed, English within these countries is not used or spoken in daily life. It is merely learned in
schools or certain courses. Therefore, the opportunity to practice using English is very limited. It results in students who tend to have low motivation to use English
outside the classroom. In relation to this research, this classification area of English is used as the
foundation in determining the area where the research reports were conducted. Considering that the focus of this research is on research conducted in Indonesia,
therefore, other countries in ECC, OCC and ICC will contribute only in a small number.
6. Content Analysis
The terms content analysis had firstly emerged by the 1940s Waples and Berelson, 1941, cited in Krippendorff, 2004. Since then, content analysis was
utilized as one of research methods used in many studies Riffe, Lacy and Fico, 1998.
a. Definition and Function
Krippendorff 2004: 18 defines content analysis as “a research technique
for making replicable and valid inferences from texts ”. As a research technique,
“content analysis allows the researchers to process the data texts which are PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
significant, meaningful, informative, and even representational to others ”
Krippendorfff, 2004: 41. It means that the texts being analyzed can be in the forms of various things not only written material as long as they fulfill the
mentioned requirements. It can be images, maps, sounds, signs, symbols, and even numerical records. He further highlights that content analysis is usually used
when the researchers want to discover the trends, patterns and differences of the phenomena or data being analyzed. It is also commonly used in identifications,
evaluations and judgements. Riffe, Lacy and Fico 2005 point out that the essence of content analysis
is to examine both the manifest and the latent content. The term manifest content here refers to the results of counting. Therefore, the analysis of manifest content
will deal with the message which can be easily recognized and counted. In short, manifest content is only the surface meaning. On the other hand, the analysis of
latent content is deeper as it will deal with the judgements, evaluations, and interpretation of content.
In addition, Rose, Spinks, and Canhoto 2015: 1 mention that: Content analysis can be applied to all kinds of written text such as
speeches, letters or articles whether digital or in print, as well as text in the form of pictures, video, film or other visual media. It can be used to
examine both the manifest and the latent content of a text. Manifest content refers to the visible, countable components of the message. Latent
content refers to the meaning that may lie behind the manifest content. These definitions are useful as they provide an understanding of what is
actually meant by content analysis. Through the definitions, it can be concluded that content analysis is a research method which focuses on revealing the meaning
of a text. Therefore, it is clear that the object of content analysis is termed as text. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
The text itself can be in the form of written and oral. As content analysis involves a large number of data, therefore in analyzing the data, it is common to have data
reduction. The process of reducing the data is called coding in which the researchers classify the data into fewer classifications. Through these
classifications a particular pattern of data being analyzed will appear as the result. The result is called as manifest content. Meanwhile, when the researcher analyzes
the meaning behind the manifest content, the results of the analysis is called as latent content. In short, it can be stated that manifest content focuses solely on the
surface, whereas latent content deals with deeper meaning. However, it must be noted that
“both manifest and latent content still require interpretation but the interpretation vary in depth and level abstraction
” Graneheim and Lundman, 2004 in Rose, Spinks and Canhoto, 2015: 1.
b. Types
Content analysis, in terms of types, can be broadly categorized into quantitative and qualitative Rose, Spinks and Canhoto, 2015: 1. It can be seen
through the procedure of how the analysis is carried out. Quantitative content analysis according to Rose, Spinks and Canhoto 2015: 3 shares many common
characteristics of quantitative research in general. As with other quantitative approach, quantitative content analysis also involves hypothesis formulation as
the response to the research question. Moreover, the most visible characteristic of quantitative approach is that the analysis process applies statistical or numerical
calculation. Nevertheless, quantitative content analysis has a distinctive characteristic as well. What makes it different is the existence of a step called
