Investigated learning teaching method; a content analysis of English educational research reports

INVESTIGATED LEARNING-TEACHING METHOD; A

CONTENT ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH REPORTS

A Thesis Presented to

the Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.)

in English Language Studies

AGATHA LISA 156332027

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2017

i

INVESTIGATED LEARNING-TEACHING METHOD; A

CONTENT ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH REPORTS

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.)

in English Language Studies

AGATHA LISA 156332027

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2017

A Thesis Presented to

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“

It always seems impossible until it is

done.

”

(Nelson Mandela)

Optimism is the faith that leads to

achievement. Nothing can be done

without hope and confidence.

”

(Helen Keller)

This research is proudly dedicated to:

1. My adorable parents, Al. Wahyu Bawono and MM. Listiyani Darayanti, and my dearest brother, Fransciscus Buwana, who have given endless love, support and affection in my life.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Foremost, all praises are forwarded to Allah, Jesus Christ and Mary, the most Gracious and the most Merciful who have given the writer inspiration, strength, blessing, spirit, hopes and guidance in accomplishing this thesis.

First of all, I would like to extend my deepest gratitude and appreciation to the best advisor Bapak Dr. J. Bismoko. His guidance, suggestions, corrections, comments, and criticism can become the improvement of this research. Moreover, his support and inspiration make me struggle with all the obstacles during the completion. I would like to thank Bapak Dr. B. B. Dwijatmoko, M. A., Bapak F.X. Mukarto, Ph. D., as Thesis reviewers, and Bapak Dr. E. Sunarto, M. Hum., as my thesis examiner. Thank you for all suggestions which encourage me in completing or revising my thesis. I thank Bapak Paulus Sarwoto, Ph.D., as the chairperson of English Language Studies.

For everything, I thank Babe Drs. Al. Wahyu Bawono, B.Sc., mami Maria Magdalena Listiyani Darmayanti, S.Pd., and kakak dr. Fransciscus Buwana. As my family, they have done their best to me. They always support me emotionally and materially with effort, prayer, love, and patience.

I would like thank my cousins Agnees Dyah R., S. Pd., Clara Rusdiana Dwi, W., S.Pd, and Ega Bima P., S. Kom., Msi, my boarding housemate Agata Endang S., Titis Sekar P., Intan, Elma Palimbong, Josephine Fanny D., S. Pd., Dian Indita, S. Pd., Maria Diah W., Karina Krisnadia., S. E, Vina, and

Ensa Puspitasari, my beloved friends, Sonia Alexandra P., S. Pd, Nadia Gitya Y., S. Pd., Arum Galih R, Vitha Ama M., S. Pd., Paskalia Siwi., M. Pd, Ni Luh Enita M., S. Pd., Natalia Sulistya. A., S. Pd., Yoanna, Maria Dea Wrestiningtyas., S. Pd., M. Hum., bapak Rosipani for helping me finding data in UAJ Jakarta, and my thesis team Supriyani, S. Pd., M. Hum., and Monica Sindhi Galih S., S. Pd., M. Hum. I also thankall my friends of KBI batch 2015.

Finally, the researcher thanks all people whom the researcher could not mention for their unforgotten contribution during the thesis writing process. Hopefully this thesis will be beneficial for everyone.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Pages

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

THESIS DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE ... iii

DEDICATION PAGE ... iv

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... viii

LIST OF TABLES ... x

LIST OF FIGURES ... xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xii

ABSTRACT ... xiii

ABSTRAK ... xiv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. RESEARCH BACKGROUND ... 1

B. SCOPE OF THE STUDY ... 9

C. PROBLEM FORMULATION ... 10

D. RESEARCH GOALS ... 10

E. RESEARCH BENEFITS ... 11

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ... 13

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW ... 13

1. Educational Research Reports ... 13

2. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching ... 21

a. Approach ... 27

1) Communicative Language Teaching ... 28

2) Cooperative Language Learning ... 29

3) Task-based Language Teaching ... 30

4) Project-based Learning ... 32

5) CALL ... 33

b. Design ... 34

1) Learning-Teaching Materials ... 34

2) Learning-Teaching Media ... 36

3) Learning-Teaching Assessment ... 38

4) Learner roles ... 40

5) Teacher roles ... 41

2) Procedure ... 42

3. Classification Area of English ... 44

a. Inner-Circle Countries ... 45

b. Outer-Circle Countries ... 46

c. Expanding-Circle Countries ... 46

d. Asia ... 47

e. Indonesia ... 48

ix

a. Definition of Content Analysis ... 49

b. Purposes of Content Analysis ... 51

c. Types of Content Analysis ... 52

d. Procedures of Content Analysis ... 53

B. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 56

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ... 59

A. RESEARCH GOALS AND METHOD ... 59

B. NATURE AND DATA SOURCES OF DATA ... 61

C. INSTRUMENTS ... 63

D. DATA GATHERING ... 67

E. DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ... 72

F. VALIDITY ... 73

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION... 75

A. ANALYSIS RESULTS ... 75

1. Origin and Year of Publication ... 76

2. Investigated Topic ... 78

3. Related Topic ... 85

4. Research Goal ... 88

5. Research Design and Method ... 89

6. Data Gathering Instruments ... 91

7. Participants ... 92

8. Sample Sizes ... 95

9. Sampling Technique ... 96

10.Validity ... 97

11.Data Analysis Technique ... 97

12.Research Results ... 98

13.Implication or Suggestion ... 100

14.Not Available or Not-Reported ... 101

B. DISCUSSION ... 102

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS... 110

A. CONCLUSION ... 110

B. IMPLICATIONS ... 113

C. SUGGESTIONS ... 114

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 116

APPENDICES ... 123

Appendix 1: Data Sources ... 123

Appendix 2: Concept Clarification Table... 130

Appendix 3: Quantitative Data ... 156

x

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Data Sources ... 64

Table 3.2 Quantitative Table ... 65

Table 3.3 Qualitative Table ... 65

Table 3.4 Concept Clarification... 66

Table 3.5 Master Table ... 67

Table 4.1 Year of Publication ... 78

Table 4.2 Learning-Teaching Approach/Method ... 80

Table 4.3 Learning-Teaching Media ... 81

Table 4.4 Learning-Teaching Assessment ... 83

Table 4.5 Learning-Teaching Materials ... 83

Table 4.6 Learning-Teaching Techniques/Strategies ... 84

Table 4.7 Investigated Skills and Knowledge ... 86

Table 4.8 Investigated Attitude and Related Learning Factors ... 87

Table 4.9 Research Goal ... 88

Table 4.10 Research Design and Method ... 89

Table 4.11 Data Gathering Instruments ... 91

Table 4.12 Participants ... 93

Table 4.13 Sampling Technique ... 96

Table 4.14 Validity ... 97

Table 4.15 Research Results ... 98

Table 4.16 Suggestion/Implication ... 100

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Three Competences of the 2013 Curriculum ... 5

Figure 2.1 Typical Research Article Structure ... 16

Figure 2.2 Summary of Elements and Sub-Elements of Method ... 26

Figure 2.3 Basic Elements of an Inquiry Process ... 42

Figure 2.4 Asia within Three Circles ... 48

Figure 2.5 A Framework for Content Analysis ... 54

Figure 2.6 Framework of Pre-Understanding... 58

Figure 3.1 Open Sources ... 63

Figure 3.2 Google Search ... 68

Figure 3.3 – Figure 3.7 Chosen Page Link ... 71

Figure 4.1 Origin ... 77

Figure 4.2 Learning-Teaching Method ... 79

Figure 4.3 Sampling Sizes ... 95

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADP Approach, Design, and Procedure ELT English Language Teaching

CLT Communicative Language Teaching CLL Cooperative Language Learning TBLT Task-Based Language Teaching PBL Project-Based Learning

CALL Computer Assisted Language Learning ECC Expanding-Circle Countries

OCC Outer-Circle Countries ICC Inner-Circle Countries CA Content Analysis

ICT Information Communications Technology F Frequency (Number of Data)

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ABSTRACT

Lisa, Agatha. (2017). Investigated Learning-Teaching Method; A Content Analysis of English Educational Research Reports. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program, English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

English language teaching has undergone many changes. Various teaching methods have come into vogue and then some still exist but some disappeared. In Indonesia, Competence Based Learning (CBL) has been introduced for more than ten years at the school level and more than fifteen at the university level. The goal is for students to acquire three competencies; knowledge, skill, and attitude. Hence, the implementation of CBL leads to the emergence of various teaching learning methods and practices which are relating with the three competencies. There have been a lot of research reports discovering learning-teaching method in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT). Therefore, this research aims to discover the trends of English educational research on learning-teaching method. The term method within this research is divided into three elements; approach, design (learning-teaching materials, media and assessments), and procedures (learning-teaching techniques or strategies). The value of examining research trends is that to see the status of academic discipline periodically looks at for the purpose of learning where it has been, where it is currently, and where it tends to be in the future. It can help ELT academics, researchers, policy makers, or university managers to see research studies that were mostly as well as rarely explored.

A content analysis method, both quantitative and qualitative, are used in this study. A total of 110 education research reports published were examined. The data were English educational research reports from Indonesia, Asia, inner circle countries (ICC) and outer circle countries (OCC) published within the last ten years, 2007-2016. The research reports were from open sources by using keywords. The results of the analysis were presented in the forms of tables, charts showing the frequencies, percentages of the findings and description.

The findings revealed that researches in English educational learning-teaching method were mostly conducted in learning-learning-teaching media (45.45%), and the most frequently studied was the innovation in emerging uses of ICT, for instance YouTube, twitter, Facebook, edmodo, podcast, interactive weblogs, and etc. For the studied sample, these studies were mostly conducted on university students which are from English Department (48.9%). The reasons for investigating learning-teaching method is to examining the effectiveness of learning-teaching method on students’ achievement or performance (70.91%), examining participants’ perception (14.55%), and examining the comparison of the usage one learning-teaching method and the other method (9.09%). Moreover, there was a tendency to employ quantitative research design (36.36%). In line with this finding, tests and questionnaire were found as the most common instrument to collect the data (22.73%).

For the research results, almost all research report results are good and effective. Only one research report which concluded that the impact of learning-teaching method on students’ achievement or performance is not effective. Therefore, for future researchers should conduct another holistic research which the results are not easy to be predicted as effective or good.

xiv

ABSTRAK

Lisa, Agatha. (2017). Investigated Learning-Teaching Method; A Content Analysis of English Educational Research Reports. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma

Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris telah banyak mengalami perubahan. Berbagai metode pembelajaran ditemukan, ada beberapa metode yang masih ada dan populer, namun ada beberapa yang sudah tidak dipakai lagi. Sementara itu, pembelajaran berbasis kompetensi telah diterapkan dalam dunia pendidikan di Indonesia selama lebih dari sepuluh tahun di tingkat sekolah dan lebih dari lima belas di tingkat universitas. Tujuan dari pembelajaran tersebut adalah menekankan siswa untuk mencapai kompetensi pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan sikap. Terdapat banyak penelitian yang meneliti tentang metode belajar mengajar Bahasa Inggris. Tujuan dari penelitian tersebut adalah untuk memberikan kontribusi dalam upaya meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran di kelas. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini mempunyai satu rumusan masalah yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui seperti apa penelitian-penelitian tentang metode pembelajaran dalam bidang pendidikan bahasa Inggris tersebut.

Penelitian ini merupakan kuantitatif dan kualitatif analisis isi. Penelitian ini menganalisa 110 laporan penelitian dalam bidang pendidikan Bahasa Inggris yang telah dipublikasin. Data laporan penelitian di pendidikan Bahasa Inggris diambil dari berbagai Negara, antara lain adalah Indonesia, Asia, Inner Circle

Countries (ICC) dan Outer Circle Countries (OCC) yang diterbitkan dalam

sepuluh tahun terakhir, mulai dari tahun 2007 sampai 2016. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kata kunci dan tabel. Hasil analisis ditampilkan dalam bentuk persentase dan deskripsi.

Hasil analis menunjukkan bahwa penelitian dalam metode pembelajaran bahasa Inggris sebagian besar dilakukan pada media pembelajaran (45.45%), dan yang paling sering diteliti adalah inovasi pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris dengan memanfaatkan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK), seperti contoh dengan menggunakan YouTube, twitter, Facebook, edmodo, podcast, interactive weblogs, dan lain-lain. Mayoritas dari penelitian dilakukan terhadap mahasiswa yang berasal dari Jurusan Bahasa Inggris (48.9%). Sedangkan alasan untuk menyelidiki metode belajar mengajar adalah untuk menguji efektivitas penerapan metode pembelajaran terhadap pencapaian prestasi siswa (70.91%), menguji persepsi siswa (14.55%), dan membandingkan suatu metode pembelajaran dengan metode pembelajaran yang lain (9.09%). Peneliti cenderung menggunakan metode kuantitatif (36.36%), dengan menggunakan tes dan kuesioner sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpulkan data (22.73%).

Untuk hasil penelitian, hampir semuanya baik dan efektif. Hanya satu laporan penelitian yang menyimpulkan bahwa suatu metode pembelajaran tidak efektif dalam meningkatkan pencapaian prestasi siswa. Oleh karenanya, sangat disarankan untuk melakukan penelitian yang lebih holistik dimana hasilnya tidak mudah diprediksi sebagai efektif atau bagus.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of five sections which is intended to present the purpose and background of this study. This chapter contains research background, scope of the study, problem formulation, research goals, and research benefits. The explanation of each section is presented as follows.

A. RESEARCH BACKGROUND

Teaching and learning are causally tightly bound activities. Kumaravadivelu (2003: 5) say “Educators say that teaching is both an art and a science. It is basically a subjective activity carried out in an organized way. While, learning is about how we perceive and understand the world, about making meaning. Marton and Booth (1997) say “but ‘learning’ is not a single thing, it is about change. It may involves mastering abstract principles, understanding proofs, remembering factual information, acquiring methods, techniques and approaches, recognition, reasoning, debating ideas, or developing behavior appropriate to specific situations” (as cited from Fry, Ketteridge, & Marshall, 2009: 8). What is the cause effect relationship between teaching and learning? The question is based on the assumption that teaching actually causes learning to occur. Does it, really? We know by experiential knowledge that teaching does not have to automatically lead to learning; conversely, learning can very well take place in the absence of teaching. Kumaravadivelu (2003: 7) answer “the entire edifice of education, however, is constructed on the foundation that teaching can contribute to accelerated and accomplished learning”. Therefore, learning-teaching is very

complex. It is not easy to translate theoretical knowledge, beliefs or assumptions into practical implications for teaching. As educators, the have to understand students’ learning. Moreover, they have been working to better prepare today’s graduates for a world in which academic content mastery and skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, innovation, communication, self-confidence, self-efficacy, technology literacy, and collaboration. There are no simple answers to the questions “How as educators can we bring about learning?” “Which method is best?” This is partly because education deals with specific purposes and contexts that differ from each other and with students as people, who are diverse in all respects, and ever changing. Not everyone learns in the same way, equally or readily about all types of material. The discipline and level of material to be learnt have an influence. Students bring different backgrounds and expectations to learning.

English language teaching has become very important because of the global status of English and people all over the world are learning this language. In Indonesia, there are many problems that foreign language learners have when they deal with those communication problems in teaching and learning process. As a result, ideal subjects are not practical and failing to realize what has been expected. Some factors are behind the failure of the application. For instance in teaching pronunciation, the students are varied and they are all influenced by their own mother tongues. Hence, generally “How to motivate students to learn?” “How to make the students understood?” Those questions lead an educator to make such a great innovation in order that all students can be motivated and

understood. A teacher should choose the proper method according to the concrete aim and problem in the learning-teaching process.

In learning-teaching process, approaches and methods reflect particular assumptions and beliefs about how learners should learn. The assumptions are reviewed based on the roles of autonomous learning, learning strategies, learning style preference, students’ feelings and technology-mediated learning. Approaches and methods also prescribe how teacher should teach. Those reflect assumptions about the nature of good teaching, the teaching-learning process characteristics, the practice and technique, teacher’s goals, teacher’s role, language skills, culture, resources, grouping, arrangement, evaluation and interaction.

English language teaching in the post-method era invites the educators to become creative, innovative and autonomous in terms of teaching methodologies, designing materials, and teaching technique which can make the enjoyable and lively teaching and learning atmosphere process. Therefore, innovation in language teaching should provide an appropriate balance of opportunities for learning and should cover four equal strands which are proposed by Paul Nation in 2007. The principle of the four strands consist of four equal strands – meaning focused input, meaning focused output, language focused learning, and fluency development. Each strand should receive a roughly equal amount of time in a course (Nation, 2007: 167). Hence, the four strands of language learning is a succinct balanced approach of looking at language learning. Richards and Renandya (2002: 11) say “An approach to language pedagogy is not just a set of static principles “set in stone.” It is, in fact, a dynamic composite of energies within a teacher that changes (or should change, if one is a growing teacher) with

continued experience in learning and teaching”. Hence, Kumaravadivelu (1994: 27) say “the post method condition can also reshape the character and content of L2 teaching, teacher education, and classroom research. in practical terms, it motivates a search for an open-ended, coherent framework based on current theoretical, empirical, and pedagogical insights that will enable teachers to theorize from practice and practice what they theorize. Therefore, the new paradigm of teaching approaches and methods give a chance for teachers to look for unconventional teaching techniques to facilitate students’ learning process. Social media includes social networks, wikis, blogs, podcasts, forums, content communities, and microblogging. Among this media, social networks seem to be the most widely accessed and used and they have been the new trend of today’s communication.

The techniques in teaching and learning process cannot be separated from the changing curriculum since it will define what to be learnt and actions on how to attain the expected outcomes. Tanner (1980: 13) defines “curriculum is the planned and guided learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal social competence.” In Indonesia, the curriculum has been renewing 11 times started from curricula 1947, 1952, 1964, 1968, 1975, 1984, 1994, 1999, 2004, 2006 until the most updated curriculum which is 2013. The English Language Teaching pedagogies in curricula 2013 are focusing on developing learners’ communicative competence and autonomy in language classrooms have two key concepts of the learner-centered classrooms: placing more responsibility in the

hands of the students to manage their own learning, and providing teachers with the role as facilitators of knowledge to help learners learn. As the 2013 Curriculum is implemented in schools, the teaching and learning stages should involve the students to actively participate through observing, questioning, exploring, associating and communicating. Those stages are designed in order to reach the goal of the 2013 Curriculum – to create Indonesians who are competent, religious, productive, innovative, and affective, and are able to contribute to the society, country, and the global civilization (Law No. 69, 2013, Ministry of Education and Culture). Three competencies of the 2013 Curriculum can be seen in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1. Three competencies of the 2013 Curriculum

(The Ministry of Education and Culture, Implemeted Kurikulum 2013) From the Figure above, it can be interpreted that English teaching and learning process should be adjusted by emphasizing skills, knowledge and attitude.

Therefore, the revised curriculum is also clear that approaches to teaching can and must be varied to complement learning and take into account the differences in students, their interests and motivation, their varied personalities

and the many ways in which they learn. It is stated in the curriculum that the teacher needs to adopt innovative approaches to teaching and to be aware of changes and developments in educational theory and practice. Nowadays, teachers can choose their textbooks and other supplementary materials; they can also choose methods or activities they want to use in their lessons. It is a big advantage but also a big challenge.

Learning-teaching method can be incorporated as an aspect which influences students’ performance. In fact, the students will learn effectively if teachers present an appropriate teaching method to stimulate the learning process and towards the end it will improve the students’ achievement. However, it is not easy to find a suitable approach for all learners. Therefore, in order to discover, evaluate and know whether learning-teaching method is effective, suitable and appropriate related to students’ skills and knowledge, students’ attitude, motivation, belief, or perception toward the learning-teaching method, some educators conducted an educational research. Some researchers, educators and practitioners conducted an educational research in some purposes. For instance they want to discover, evaluate and know whether learning-teaching method is effective, suitable and appropriate related to students’ skills and knowledge, students’ attitude, motivation, belief, or perception toward the learning-teaching method. In Indonesia, different people do some research with different purposes. They are not only teachers and lecturers but also scholars, students, and researchers. One of purposes in conducting some researches is that the credit system in Indonesia which demands the students to do a research as the requirement to obtain a degree. Rajasekar, Philominathan and Chinnathambi

(2013: 3) say that “No person would like to do research unless there are some motivating factors.” They presents ten motivations about what makes people do research. One of them is “to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or university or become a scientist in a research institution”. Relating to the fact about the credit system in Indonesia, it can be proved that some people do a research at the end of their study in university as the partial fulfillment of the requirements to obtain their degrees. The thesis is the end product and record of students’ years of academic training and research efforts. The students will be considered to pass or fail from their study depending on this research paper. The Directorate of Higher Education (DIKTI), every year, also always offers many kinds of grants for students in order to develop students’ ability in expressing their ideas and the results of their scientific activity in the form of scientific article based on the criteria or standard of writing scientific journal (Ditlitabmas Dirjen Dikti, 2014: 24). Therefore, it can be implied that writing a research is compulsory for the students who study in the university since most university programs require the completion of a mid-level to senior-level of research project. Moreover, the students will be considered “pass or fail” from their study depending on their research which is written in the process or in end of their study in university.

Therefore, as a result, many types of researches have been conducted in English education field. One of them is learning-teaching method, as one of non-learners components in English education. There are some methods which can be used in learning and teaching process. They are expected to give some significant contributions to improve the quality of teaching and learning success in English

education. Therefore, this research aimed to discover how far English educational research on learning and teaching method which has been investigated in the last ten years. The value of examining research trends is that to see the status of academic discipline periodically looks at for the purpose of learning where it has been, where it is currently, and where it tends to be in the future. Lee, Wu, and Tsai (2009) say that “information about the current status and trends of research in their fields is helpful for their career and academic publications (as cited from Cavas, 2015: 575). Similarly, being aware of publications in important academic journals for novice researchers helps them to understand the field of science education more broadly. Tsai and Wen, (2005) say that “It will help to minimize the replication study. Moreover, a systematic analysis of publications in academic journals may assist researchers to explore the current status and future trends of researches (as cited from Cavas, 2015: 575). Therefore, it can be said that investigating the trends of those research can provide information on the progress and current status of English education.

Studies which have looked at research trends and progresses can be found in several disciplines in English education. They are Choi and Lee (2008) who had analyzed the trends and issues of English language education in Asia. It is then followed by Renandya et al. (2014) who also investigated the current ELT trends and practices in Southeast Asia. Meanwhile Abilasha and Ilankumaran (2014) had examined the trends of English Language teaching in the entire world with specific reference to the trends prevalent during the previous decades. From the review of these previous three studies, this study is valuable and different from previous studies. Firstly, the present study indicates discovering not only manifest

content but also latent content. Secondly, this study was scrutinized the research reports on learning-teaching method in terms of different variables unlike similar researches. Last, this study provides a systematic review to cover recent trends through analyzing the research reports published up to 2016.

Hence, the trends in English language teaching and learning will have been giving tremendous significance advantages in education systems. It has undergone numerous innovations and changes in language education include new pedagogic approaches, such as task-based language teaching; changes to teaching materials; technological developments, such as computer-assisted language learning; and alternative assessment methods, such as the use of portfolios. Therefore, related to the phenomena, this research will focus to discover the trends from some published educational researches on one of external factors in language teaching, English teaching and learning method.

This research is collaborative with other two researchers, Supriyani and Monica Sindhi Galih Susanti. Supriyani’s research focuses on investigating skills and knowledge in English education. Meanwhile, Supriyani’s research focuses on investigating attitude and related learning factors in English education.

B. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

English educational research on learning and teaching method should be done thoroughly. However, due to the time and place constraint, the researcher considered some limitations. First, this study is limited to the topic of research reports being analyzed. This research focuses only on analyzing research reports which deal with learning and teaching method; approach, design, and procedure.

Second, the limitation is related to the number of the learning-teaching method in English educational research. This study only examines 110 education research reports which are published from Expanding-Circle Countries (ECC), Inner-Circle Countries (ICC) and Outer-Circle Countries (OCC). The research reports are written by practitioners, teachers, lecturers, or university students (both the graduate and post-graduate) which were published between the years 2007-2016. Third, the analysis of the research reports is only intended to the method of teaching and the content of each research reports. However, the researcher will analyze 110 research reports in which 90 research reports are originated from Indonesia, 10 of them are from Asia, and 5 are from each of OCC and ICC. Therefore, due to the limited data acquisition, the results of this study may not represent the general reality or condition in the world.

C. PROBLEM FORMULATION

Considering the background of the study, the problem of this study is formulated in a research question. The research question is: what are the trends of research on learning-teaching method in English education?

D. RESEARCH GOALS

The main purpose of this study is to discover the trends of research on learning-teaching method in English education. This goal of research can be achieved through finding out the elements of research reports which covers investigated topic, concept of clarification of the topic being analyzed, related topic, origin, participant, goal, method, data gathering instrument, data analysis

technique, sampling technique, validation technique, results, and recommendation or suggestion. Moreover, this information leads to discover the existence of learning-teaching method and various learning-teaching practices in post-method era.

E. RESEARCH BENEFITS

This study is intended to explore the trends of English educational research on learning and teaching method in the last ten years in Indonesia. Therefore, it is expected to give some significant contributions to the following; scientific benefits and practical benefits. The scientific benefit contributes on researchers, especially for English Language Studies knowledge regarding to English educational research on learning-teaching method since this research offers a description of each learning-teaching method; approach, design, and procedure. It also offers the findings about developmental path to what extend the English educational researches on teaching and learning are develop in the ten years.

Another benefit is related to practical benefit. This study is expected to be beneficial to students, educators, practitioners, researchers, or policy makers. It might possible to guide for the next researchers who makes studies and researches on this issue. They can use the results of this study to conduct an extended research about teaching and learning method as their references since this study find out the significant scientific discoveries of the investigated learning-teaching methods. Specifically, the attributes will be described through the types of method teaching and the content of the research reports. Those information will present a big picture and provide numerical-based summary about which learning-teaching

methods in English educational research are discovered and frequently discovered.

In addition, this study can offer insight and benefit for the English practitioners and policy maker who want to conduct research, as well as to see the aspects of the research that still need to be improved and it can be used for evaluation. Also, it can reach efficiency in English education research, particularly in teaching and learning method research and contribute greatly to the advancement of humanity since understanding each method allow us to see some salient differences among the methods presented in the research reports.

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter includes two parts, namely theoretical review and theoretical framework. The theoretical review presents some important concepts which are related to the research. The theoretical framework consists of summary from the theories that will be used to solve the research problems.

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW

The theoretical description presents some important concepts which are related to the research. The concepts are: (1) Educational Research Report, (2) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, (3) Classification Area of English, and (4) Content Analysis. The description of each concept will be discussed as follow.

1. Educational Research Reports

Research is a process in which the researchers engage in a small set of logical steps (Creswell, 2012: 2). Educational research report is a brief information and description of the research work done by the researcher. It can be in a form of theses, dissertations, journal article and proceedings. It is one of the means by which we seek to discover the logical and empirical truth in the field of education. Rajasekar, Philominathan and Chinnathambi (2013: 2) say “It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The information might be collected from different sources like experience, human

beings, books, journals, nature, etc.” It can be interpreted that academic educational research reflects the interests, issues, and concerns of the teachers, educators, and researchers. They are meant for knowledge development in which individuals evaluate different aspects of education including, student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics. Therefore, they are expected to give some significant contributions to improve the quality of teaching and learning success in English education. Rajasekar, Philominathan and Chinnathambi (2013: 2) say “A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through research is it possible to make progress in a field”. In the different term, Carrol and Morrell (2010: 2) say “educational research is important in proposing theories, testing theories, increasing our understanding, and improving teaching and learning. Therefore, it can be said that educational research is not just a way to come up with new ideas about teaching and learning, but most often it is a way to convince us that the ideas we already have are worth exploring. Hence, conducting research is not something easy to do as it is composed of several steps. Creswell (2012: 7) proposes six steps of how to conduct research namely: (1) Identifying a research problem, (2) Reviewing the literature, (3) Specifying a purpose for research, (4) Collecting data, (5) Analyzing and interpreting the data, and (6) Reporting and evaluating research. These steps are considered as the foundation for conducting educational research.

A key feature of reports is that they are formally structured in sections. The use of sections makes it easy for the reader to jump straight to the information they need. Therefore, as proposed by Yates (2004: 16-17), the criteria of good research report can be roughly measured based on three aspects. First, they can be

defined as good research reports technically. It means that the researches were conducted systematically. In other words, they follow the procedure properly. Second, they are good if they made contribution to knowledge. The result of the research should establish a breakthrough of science which is not previously known. They can prove something which is vague so that better understanding can be made. Third, they should achieve something that mattered. It can be universally or specifically for a particular context. For example: a research on the implementation of certain teaching technique in English education which aimed at improving the students’ proficiency. Therefore, generally, in reporting an educational research, there are several parts to be presented in the report, namely abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results or findings, analysis results and interpretation, conclusion, implication and recommendation or suggestion. The structure of research report can be seen in the following Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Typical Research Article Structure (as cited from https://csumb.edu/library/structure-typical-research-article)

Abstract is the summary of the research or study in which will help the readers easily to identify what, why, how and the result or summary of main findings. In introduction, the researcher outlines context, background and purpose. It exposes what the researcher researched and why. Literature review which sometimes may be combined and included in the introduction refers to other relevant research. Methodology explains what the researcher did, how research

was done and outlines how the data was collected. Results or findings which sometimes may be combined with discussion presents the findings of the research. In this part, the researcher should write and present the facts only without interpretation by using graphic form, for instance, tables or graphs. Analyses results which may be combined with interpretation presents the findings which refers to literature review. It also presents an interpretation and evaluation of the results. Conclusion which may be combined with recommendations and suggestion is a brief statement of what was found. Recommendations is about suggestion about suitable changes or solutions. References is regarding to all references used in your report or referred to for background information. Sometimes, an educational research reports provides appendix. Appendix is any additional material which will add to researcher’s report.

The judgment of the education research can be done through looking at the elements research reports. Judgments about education research involve judgments about research and about education since they involve some consideration both of the methodological (how well it was done) and of the substance (what it achieved). Therefore, examining the elements of research reports are necessary as it provides information which can be used to see what elements are absent and still need to be improved. Hence, such this exploration is necessary to discover how much the education has improved within a specific period of time in term of learning-teaching method. To assist researchers examining the research reports, especially for those who obtained large data, a table consisting research attributes can be employed.

The table should cover the attributes of research. Sozbilir (2016: 1651) has developed paper classification form (PCF) which consists of five sections: subject of the paper, research design or methods, data collection tools, sample, and data analysis methods. The researcher within this research has adjusted the paper classification form so that it becomes more adaptive. As the results, eleven main categories are formulated. Those are (1) origin, (2) investigated issue, (3) related issue, (4) participant, (5) research problem/goal, (6) research design and method, (7) data gathering instrument, (8) data analysis instrument, (9) sampling technique, (10) validation, and (11) results, (12) conclusion, and (13) additional information.

First, the classification of origin is based on the classification area of English discussed in the previous part which is proposed by Kachru (1985). There are three areas namely Inner-Circle Countries (ICC), Outer-Circle countries (OCC) and Expanding-Circle countries (ECC) in which the majority of countries in Asia belong to this area. But, as the researcher wanted to focus more on Indonesia, she adjusted the classification into four, namely ICC, OCC, Asia and Indonesia.

Second, in terms of investigated issue, the researcher has used the theories of learning-teaching method in determining the classification. They are approach, design and procedure. However, to get richer results, the researcher also put other related issue as the third category. The classification will be based on what the researcher found in the studied research reports.

Fourth category is participant as the studied sample. It can be high school students, university students, English teachers, lecturers, etc. The classification of

this category will also be based on what have been found within the studied research reports.

Fifth category is about the goal of the research. Considering the various goals that will be found within the studied research reports, therefore the researcher will make generalization to classify them so that it will be easier to interpret. Firstly, she will read each research report and make a list on the goal. Then, she will classify the similar goal under one classification as the generalization.

Sixth category is research design and method which can be broadly categorized into quantitative, qualitative and mixed (the combination of both quantitative and qualitative). Creswell (2012: 12) mention that experimental, correlation, and survey belong to quantitative designs. While, grounded theory, ethnography, and narrative belong to qualitative designs. Mixed methods and action research designs belong to combine designs. Furthermore, Fraenkel and Wallen (2009) also proposes that experimental, correlation and survey belong to quantitative. While content analysis, ethnography, and historical research belong to qualitative. They also mention mixed method and action research. In the different term, Ary et al. (2010: vii) make a clear distinction between the two. The quantitative is composed of experimental and non-experimental. While the qualitative consists of case study, content analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, historical, narrative, and phenomenological. The research design and method, therefore, are formulated based on the classification of those experts and what have been found in the research reports.

Seventh, the data gathering instrument consists of several tools which are commonly used to obtain data for both quantitative and qualitative research. Ary et al. (2010: 527) have defined various data gathering instruments such as field note, observation, interview, written response (questionnaire), performance measures on and student’s information which can be in the form of portfolio or work samples, test, and many others. They also point out two instruments used in educational research which aims at measuring the value, namely achievement test and aptitude test (Ary et al., 2010: 201). Creswell (2012: 212) mention that qualitative data can be collected through several instruments such as observation, interview, document and audiovisual materials. Considering the use of these instruments, the researcher will put them in classification if the researcher finds at least two or more than twice.

Eighth, data analysis instrument is formulated based on three types of research, quantitative, qualitative and mixed. Data analysis instrument in Sozbilir’s (2016: 1651) paper classification form also consists of quantitative and qualitative. The researcher involves mixed instrument since several researches in English education also employ both quantitative and qualitative within the analysis.

Ninth, sampling technique is determined based on two types of sampling, probability and nonprobability. Ary et al. (2010) differentiate between the two types of sampling. They mention that random sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling are the examples of probability sampling. While nonprobability sampling involves convenience sampling, purposive sampling and quota sampling. Furthermore, Creswell (2012: 143) describe about sampling strategies

in quantitative research. Probability sampling consists of random sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling. Meanwhile, nonprobability sampling is composed of convenience sampling and snowball sampling. Therefore, the researcher has determined random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, purposive sampling, convenience sampling and quota sampling as the sampling techniques to be put in the research reports classification.

Tenth, validation is significant in both quantitative and qualitative research. Validity and reliability are commonly used for quantitative research as it always depends on measurement. As stated by Ary et al. (2010: 225) both validity and reliability are essential in developing and evaluating instruments. In qualitative research, the researchers can use credibility, transferability, trustworthiness and confirmability (Ary et al., 2010: 498). The researcher within this category has chosen validity, reliability, trustworthiness and credibility as the sub-categories of validation.

The last category is result. In determining the classification, the researcher will do the same procedure as in defining the classification of goal. She will make a list of result from each research report and then the similar results will be put under one classification. By doing so, it will assist the researcher in interpreting the results of large number of research reports.

2. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching

People talk about approaches, methods, techniques, procedures or models into the practice of English teaching since in the middle age to 17th century. In that century, John Locke, Basedow and Comenius devised new method of teaching based on the principles of imitation, repetition, and practice in both reading and

speaking form. It also was happened as the influence of Latin 500 years ago before the foundation of Roman Empire in which Romans studied Greek as their second language. The process of second language acquisition was similar to be the acquisition of the first language such as repetition, imitation, and reproduction of words, phrases or sentences. Mackey (1950) also believes that all teaching, whether good or bad, must include some sort of repetition, presentation, selection, and gradation. Therefore, in the reform movement, about four decades ago Edward Anthony (1963) identified three levels of conceptualization and organization, which he termed approach, method, and technique. An approach, according to Anthony was a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning and teaching. Method was described as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach. An approach is axiomatic and a method is procedural. Technique is the implementation of specific activities manifested in the classroom that were consistent with a method and therefore were in harmony with an approach as well (as cited in Richards & Rodgers, 2014: 21).

Therefore, a couple of decades later, Richards and Rodgers (1982, 1986, and 2001) proposed a reformulation of the concept of “method”. Anthony’s approach, method, and technique were renamed, respectively, approach, design, and procedure, with a super ordinate term to describe this three-step process, now called method. Kumaravadivelu (1994: 29) defines method as “a single set of theoretical principles derived from feeder disciplines and a single set of classroom procedures directed at classroom teachers”. While, Bell (2003: 326) defines method (with a lowercase m) as “a grab bag of classroom practices” and Method

(with an uppercase M) as “a fixed set of classroom practices that serve as a prescription and therefore do not allow variation”. Prabhu (1990: 162), on the other hand, uses the term ‘method’ to refer “both to a set of activities to be carried out in the classroom and to the theory, belief, or plausible concept that informs those activities”. Pennycook (1989: 610) argued that methods actually serve the dominant power structures in society, leading to “a de-skilling of the role of teachers, and greater institutional control over classroom practice”.

Therefore, as a consequences of repeatedly articulated dissatisfaction with the limitation of the concept method and the transmission model of teacher education, the L2 profession is faced with an imperative need to construct a postmethod. The term postmethod was first coined by Pennycook in 1989 and was later studied by many other scholars like N.S. Prabhu, R.L. Allwright, H. H. Stern, etc. The concept of postmethod condition was officially firstly introduced by Kumaravadivelu (1994). Kumaravadivelu (1994, 2001, 2003b) who is information currents of thought: One emphasizes the need to go beyond the limitations of the concept of method with a call to find an alternative way of designing effective teaching strategies (Clarke, 1994; Kumaravadivelu, 1994; Prabhu, 1990), and another emphasizes the need to go beyond the limitations of the transmission model of teacher education with a call to find an alternative way of creating efficient teaching professionals (Freeman & Johnson, 1998; Johnson, 2000; Woods, 1996). Kumaravadivelu (1994, pp. 43-44) adds that “the postmethod condition can potentially reshape the character and content of L2 teaching, teacher education, and classroom research. It can empower teachers with the knowledge, skill, attitude, and autonomy necessary to devise for themselves a systematic,

coherent, and relevant alternative to method”. However, the source of inspiration for philosophizing postmethod is postmodernism. So before dealing with the postmethod pedagogy, it would be helpful to take a glance at the concept of postmodernism (Hashemi, 2011).

However, despite the widespread dissatisfaction with the prescriptive nature of language teaching methods and approaches, Islam (2017: 545) gives an opinion in his research that the focus of ELT should not center on discussing methodological issues in a sporadic way, but on the ways how teachers can implement those issues in classroom practices or how they can go beyond the prevailing methods.

In fact, postmethod pedagogy does not “imply the end of methods but rather an understanding of the limitations of the notion of method as it is narrowly defined and a desire to transcend those limitations” (Bell, 2007: 143) by empowering educators towards developing a standardized system of language teaching. Efforts in developing a standard method of teaching were very much apparent during the method era but they were sporadic and ultimately resulted in failures. But postmethod pedagogy has tried to string together these diverse, piecemeal efforts in a harmonious way so that it can overcome the limitations of method.

From the different point of views which some experts talk about method and postmethod, it can be concluded that as educators, they should be exposed to all methods so that they themselves can choose from the existing methods or even construct what principles they will use in their teaching. Moreover, method still retains a place in postmethod and postmethod makes a newer type of method in the name of eclecticism and principled pragmatism. Electicism is related to conceptual approach which holds multiple theories, various teaching styles or ideas to gain deep and clear understanding. While, principle pragmatism is related to teacher’s plausibility which connotes the involvement of both teacher and students in the learning activity. In addition, following a method and a blend of

methods give benefit for teacher especially for those who have recently started their teaching. They can get pack of suggestions including a set presciptions on what teachers and learners should do in the classroom. Moreover, there are losts of limitations and challenges in postmethod pedagogy. Akbari (2008: 645) The big problem is that, in postmethod pedagogy, teachers’ responsibilities are much broader and other than their academic duties, they are also assigned with “extra roles of social reformer and cultural critic” thus taking “language teaching beyond the realms of possibility and practice”. Shohamy (2004: 101-106) gives opinion that in many circumstances, most teachers are viewed as “servants of the system” who prepare students for a specific exam or test by just “implementing the testing policies of central agencies with no power and authority to resist”. They are not only teaching but also assigning their academic or administrative duties. In this matter, the teacher does not have enough time and energy to have kind of reflection regarding to their own teaching to overcome the language classroom problems in an era when there is not any method anymore. In line with what Islam (2017: 545) says that though the postmethod pedagogy encourages teachers’ autonomy and freedom of will in language classrooms, the set up acts the opposite. And teachers’ lack of competence and confidence does not allow them to be bold enough to exercise freedom. It is also certain that very few postmethod teachers have the time, resources, or the willingness to shoulder responsibilities.

Therefore, the term method in this research will follow Richards and Rodgers (2014, p. 22) who say “method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and is practically realized in procedure”. Hence, it can be said that method is like an umbrella which term for the

specification and interrelation of theory and practice. An approach defines assumption, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and language learning which the sources of the way things are done in the classroom and which provide the reasons for doing them. Design is the level of method analysis in which included the objective of method, the types of learning tasks, teaching activities, learners’ role, teachers’ role and the role of instructional materials. Designs specify the relationship of those theories to classroom materials and activities. Procedures are an ordered techniques and practices that are derived from one’s approach and design. A procedure is a sequence which can be described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that.... It is smaller than a method, it is bigger than technique. The relationship between approach, design, and procedure, the final step in implementing a method can be demonstrated in the Figure2.2.

Figure 2.2. Summary of elements and sub elements that constitute a method (Richards & Rodgers, 2014: 36)

The Figure 2.2 presents information that Approach, Design, and Procedure are related each other. Different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned (the approach) imply different ways of teaching language (the method) and different methods make use of different kinds of classroom activities (the techniques). The description of elements and sub elements that constitute method will be presented as follow.

a. Approach

In the nineteenth century, Grammar-translation method emerged and brought foreign-language learning into school curriculums. In this method, the students were given explanations of individual points of grammar, and then they were given sentences which exemplified these points. These sentences had to be translated from the target language (L1) back to the students’ first language (L1) and vice versa. At the end of nineteenth century, the direct method arrived as the product of a reform movement which was reacting to the restrictions of Grammar-translation. Translation was abandoned in favor of the teacher and the students speaking together, relating the grammatical forms they were studying to objects and pictures. In the 1920s and 1930s, the direct method morphed into the Audio-lingual method. The method attempted through a continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners by using the stimulus-response-reinforcement model. Audiolingualism relied heavily on drills to form habits. Therefore, the purpose was habit-formation through constant repetition of correct utterances. A variation on the method is the procedure most often referred to as PPP (Presentation-Practice-Production). The PPP procedure emerged in the middle of the 1960s onwards. Then, four methods, developed in

the 1970s and 1980s, such as Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia, Total Physical Response (TPR), and Silent Way. The emergence of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) was in the 1980s. The general principles of CLT are today widely accepted around the world. Therefore, some approaches also emerged, such as Cooperative Language Learning, Content-based Teaching (CBT), Task-based Teaching, and Participatory Approach. Those can be regarded as a logical development of some core principles of Communicative Language Teaching.

1) Communicative Language Teaching

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), rooted in the multidiscipline, the initiation of communicative approach, came up at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and formalized in the late 1960s, when language studies and foreign language teaching ideas made big changes in America, Britain and Europe. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) refers to a diverse set of principles that perfect a communicative view of language and language learning and that can be used to support a wide variety of classroom procedures. Richards and Rodgers (2014: 87) have mentioned that CLT in language teaching starts form a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching itself is to develop communicative competence. Furthermore, Widdowson (1978) said that CLT focuses on the communicative acts underlying the ability to use language for different purposes. Briefly, it can be inferred that CLT focuses the language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures. Richards and Rodgers (2014) also proposed some principles in Communicative Language Teaching. The principles are (1) Learners learn a language through

using it to communicate, (2) Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities, (3) Fluency is an important dimension of communication, (4) Communication involves the integration of different language skills, and (5) Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error. Common activity types in CLT include Jig-saw activities, Task-completion

activities, Information-gathering activities, Opinion-sharing activities,

Information-transfer activities, reasoning gap activities, and Role plays. One of

description examples of CLL types is in Jig-saw activities. In this activities, the class is divided into groups and each group has part of the information needed to complete an activity. The class must fit the pieces together to complete the whole.

2) Cooperative Language Learning

Cooperative learning has been proved to be an effective teaching strategy to both the teachers and learners. The focus in cooperative language learning moves from teacher-centered to student-centered. The students will not perceive to be empty vessels awaiting the teachers’ knowledge like a traditional methods, but in cooperative learning, it recognizes the importance of students’ existing knowledge and puts that knowledge to work. Slavin (1995: 2) defines it:

Cooperative learning refers to a variety of teaching methods in which students work in small groups to help one another learn academic content. In cooperative classrooms, students are expected to help each other, to discuss and argue with each other, to assess each other’s current knowledge and fill in gaps in each other’s understanding.

In other words, cooperative learning should boost interpersonal relationship. Moreover, it should assist learners to develop high appreciation of collaborating with others. In the different term, Richards and Rodgers (2014: 246) point out that the word cooperative in Cooperative Learning emphasizes another important

dimension of CLL: it seeks to develop classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning. Therefore, the idea of CLL is that it helps students to benefit from collaboration with peers in their learning (Jacob & Hannah, 2004). In applying this approach, there are some principles which teachers should acknowledge before implementing in their classes. The principles are proposed by some experts (Kagan 1994; Slavin 1995; Johnson et al.) They are positive interdependence, individual accountability, interaction, equal participation, equal opportunity for success, and group processing. Al-Yaseen (2014: 93) summarizes the aims of cooperative learning from some experts. The aims of Cooperative learning can be summarized as it help students to learn academically, learn listen to each other and to solve problems together (social-affective learning), and help students strengthen the confidence in their abilities and motivate them to apply themselves more in the learning process (personality development). Olsen and Kagan (1992: 88) gives several examples and also procedures of CLL activities such as Three-step interview, Roundtable, Think-Pair-Share, Solve-Pair-Share,

and Numbered heads.

3) Task-based Language Teaching

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is one of approaches in CLT. It refers to the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching. It also becomes the basic guidelines to design the classroom activities. Nunan (2004: 216) states, “task-based language teaching is an approach to language teaching organized around tasks rather than language structures”. While, Branden (2006) defined it as “an approach to language education in which students are given functional tasks that invite them to focus primarily on meaning

exchange and to use language for real-world, non-linguistic purposes” (as cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2014: 174).

Willis (1996, p. 26) classifies tasks into six types, which are listing tasks, sorting and ordering, comparing, problem-solving, sharing personal experience, and creative tasks. Whereas, according to Nunan (2004: 59), there are five categories of task: cognitive, interpersonal, linguistic, affective and creative tasks”. Whereas, there are some tasks in each category. Cognitive tasks consist of classifying, predicting, inducing, taking notes, concept mapping, inferencing, discriminating, and diagramming. Interpersonal tasks contain co-operating and role playing. Linguistic tasks consist of conversational patterns, practicing, using context, summarizing, selective listening, and skimming. Affective tasks consist of personalizing, self-evaluating, and reflecting. Whereas, creative task is only brainstorming. In designing the classroom activities, the learners follow three phases in task-based learning. According to Willis (1996: 42), “the framework of task-based learning consists of three phases: pre-task, task cycle, and language focus”. Moreover, Willis (1996) proposes six task types such as Jigsaw tasks,

Information gap tasks, Problme-solving tasks, Decision-making tasks, and

Opinion exchange tasks. Then, Astika (2004:8) provides the real example of this

approach. Two major tasks, for instance; the first task is taking tourists to the hotel for check in and taking tourists on a day tour. The subtasks for the first task will be (1) meeting tourists at the airport, (2) giving information on the way to the hotel, and (3) helping tourists with registration. While, the subtasks for the second task will be (1) meeting tourists at the hotel lobby, (2) beginning the tour, (3) describing the itinerary, (4) describing objects on the way to the destination, (5)

describing religious objects, (6) describing processes, (7) taking tourists to restaurants, and (8) describing sites.

4) Project-based Learning

Project is defined as complex tasks based on problems encountered by students, conducted in certain periods of time and culminated in realistic products that might be in form of presentation, exhibition, publication, etc. (Thomas, 2000). The project is supposed to be long-term, requires teamwork among students, and results in a substantial final product (Thompson & Beak, 2007, as cited in Cruz & Vik, 2007). It can be interpreted that not every assignment can be considered as project. Project-based Learning (PBL) is one of teaching and learning method which engages students in active learning. Patton (2012: 13) gives brief explanation that Project-based learning refers to students designing, planning, and carrying out an extended project that produces a publicly-exhibited output such as a product, publication, or presentation. PBL is different from traditional teaching method because it is an instructional method centered on the learner (Grant, 2002: 1). In traditional approach, the teacher becomes the source of knowledge and handles all the activities in classroom. While, the students will listen to the teacher’s explanation, take a note, and do the exercises without having a chance to develop their creativity. Therefore, the purpose of Project-based Learning helps students develop skills through completing authentic activities (project-work) for living in a knowledge-based and highly technological society. Thus, the students have the opportunity to use the language in relatively natural context (Haines, 1989, as cited in Fragoulis, 2009) and participate in meaningful activities which require authentic language use. The project work in

Code Title Teaching

Models Topics

Participants

Problems/Goal Method Sampling Validation Gathering Instruments

Analysis

Techniques Procedures Results/discussion

Conclusion

on Improve

English Pronunci ation Deficient Adult Japanese Learners: An Action Research on Expatriat e Japanese Adult Learners

(Expatriate Japanese) (4 Students)

Japanese adult learners' pronunciation

who are

residing in Sabah, Malaysia after retirement

of shadowing technique --> observation --> learner journal (Cycle 1-Cycle 5)

suitable. Cycle 2 --> Could not reproduce, No knowledge of simplifications. Instruction on simplifications. Practice more. Cycle 3 --> Got

used to

shadowing, Improvement seen. Sometimes can use in daily conversation. Cycle 4 --> Could not listen to chunks, Not sure how to stress. Shadowed during pause. Instruction on stress, rhythm and intonation. No more pause. Cycle 5 --> Overall improvement. Could catch, follow, shadow much better. Improved in rhythm. Continue practicing stress,

rhythm and

intonation to catch key.

cycles that there was an improvement

of the

participants in their pronunciation namely English rhythms.

Malaysia or other Asian countries, of various age and groups such as primary school pupils, secondary school

students, university undergraduates or postgraduates, and adults would be interesting subjects to test the effectiveness of using the shadowing technique in assisting them to

attain an

internationally intelligible standard of spoken English.

102AS I2013L TTSA

Using Graphic Organize rs to Improve Reading Compreh ension Skills for the Middle School

Learning-Teaching Technique

Graphic Organize

r

Junior High School Students (70 Students)

The effectiveness of using Graphic Organizers in reading comprehensio ns

Experim

ental NA NA

Tests (pre-test and post-test)

Quantitative

Pre-test -->treatment (experimental and control group with different method) --> pos-test

The result of the post-test suggested that the experimental group students have improved in all the five types

of reading

questions compared to controlled group students.

Using graphic organizers is effective in reading questions like (1) identifying the main idea, (2) finding the supporting details, (3) dealing with vocabulary

Implication: the pedagogical implication here is the use graphic organizers during reading

comprehension sessions indirectly motivates the students to create their own graphic organizer for the

Code Title Teaching

Models Topics

Participants

Problems/Goal Method Sampling Validation Gathering Instruments

Analysis

Techniques Procedures Results/discussion

Conclusion

on ESL

Students

and (4) fact and opinion & (5) making inferences.

passages they read and comprehend. This improves their creativity.

103IC C2009 LTME

Podcastin g: An Effective Tool for Honing Language

Students’

Pronunci ation?

Learning-Teaching Media

Podcasti ng

University Students - General Course (22 Students)

Investigation of podcasting as a tool for honing pronunciation skills in intermediate language learning. Examining the effects of using podcasts to improve pronunciation in second language learning and

how students’

attitudes changed toward pronunciation over the semester.

NA Convenie

nce NA Projects

Quantitative and Qualitative

Pre-survey --> material ----> pre-podcast --> material ----> postpodcast --> post-survey

Students’

pronunciation did not significantly improve in regard to

comprehensibility , perhaps because the16-week long treatment was too short to foster significant improvement and there was no in-class

pronunciation practice. The podcast project, however, was perceived positively by students, and they appreciated the feedback given for each scripted recording and enjoyed

opportunities for creativity during extemporaneous podcasts. The podcast project, however, was perceived positively by students, and they appreciated the feedback given for each scripted recording and enjoyed

opportunities for creativity during

Podcasting and repeated recordings alone are not enough to improve pronunciation

over an

academic semester.

Suggestion: further studies could be conducted to investigate whether

students’

pronunciation might improve over a year or even longer.

Code Title Teaching

Models Topics

Participants

Problems/Goal Method Sampling Validation Gathering Instruments

Analysis

Techniques Procedures Results/discussion

Conclusion

on extemporaneous

podcasts

104OC C2016 LTME

Twitter-based EFL Pronunci ation Instructio n

Learning-Teaching Media

Twitter

Language School Students (16 Students)

Determine whether Twitter can foster online participation and whether it may have a positive effect

on the

pronunciation of a number of words commonly mispronounce d by EFL students.

NA NA NA

Tests and Questionna ire

Quantitative

Pre-test --> questionnaire --> implementati on of twitter-based program --> interview --> post-test --> questionnaire

The results show that the instruction had a beneficial effect on the

students’

pronunciation of the target words

and that

participants were actively engaged during the study.

The use of Twitter encouraged participation and that the instruction

had a

beneficial effect on the

students’

pronunciation of the target words.

Suggestion: future studies should also look at the advantages and disadvantages of Twitter over other SNSs. Twitter can be beneficial for both pronunciation teaching and learning,

encouraging

teachers to

implement this SNS alongside other educational resources, be it as part of an online or on-campus learning program.

105OC C2013 LTTS A

Enhancin g Student Engagem ent with Their Studies: A Digital Storytelli ng Approach

Learning-Teaching Technique

Digital Storytell ing

University Students - Non-English Department (Education and Social Sciences) - 29 Students

Reports on the potential of digital storytelling in enhancing student engagement with their studies, amongst 29 final year pre-service student teachers at a large University of Technology in South Africa

Qualitati

ve NA

Trustwort hiness; descriptiv e validity and interpretiv e validity

Focus Group Interview and Project

Qualitative

Doing focus group interview --> seeing moments in the students' project

Findings of this study showed that digital

storytelling- ling provided expanded opportunity for the students to engage and plug deeper into the subject matter. Factors which led to high levels of student

engagement were: extended opportunities for study beyond the classroom time; motivation to interact with the subject content; student control of

their own

learning; the The

production of digital stories enhanced student engagement with their studies which led to high levels of reflection on the subject matter, which as a result led to a deep understanding of the subject matter.

Suggestion: there is need to implement digital story- telling in other disciplines other than education in order to establish whether the results are replicable or not. The researchers also suggest that there is need for more re- searches to ascertain if higher levels of engagement would be experienced by students through using digital storytelling to engage with subject content which has not been previously taught using a different delivery method.

Code Title Teaching

Models Topics

Participants

Problems/Goal Method Sampling Validation Gathering Instruments

Analysis

Techniques Procedures Results/discussion

Conclusion

on

process of

producing digital stories; peer learning, increased student-lecturer

interactions and promotion of high

levels of

reflection.

106OC C2016 LTAS

Integratin g Edmodo into Foreign Language Classes as an Assessme nt Tool

Learning-Teaching Assessment

Edmodo

University Students - English Department (62 Students)

Introduce the implementatio n of various assessment applications through Edmodo and offer some suggestions.

NA NA NA Interview Qualitative

Distributing some questions through interview

The results indicated that most of the students found Edmodo to be funny, motivating, user-friendly, and practical. They also stated that Edmodo reduced their test anxiety to a great extent and they would prefer to be assessed through Edmodo rather than traditional assessment techniques like pen-and-paper tests.

Edmodo can function as an effective assessment

tool in

language classrooms. With its immediate feedback and user-friendly aspects, it can serve as an alternative assessment

tool to

traditional pen and paper exams in the classroom.

NA

107AS I2012L TTSA

Developi ng English Speaking Skills of Thai Undergra duate Students by Digital Storytelli ng through Websites

Learning-Teaching Technique

Digital Storytell ing

University Students - Non-English Department (Technolog y) (50 Students)

Investigate the implementatio n of digital storytelling in developing English speaking skills

and the

satisfaction toward learning from digital storytelling

Experim ental (Quasi)

Purposiv

e NA

Tests (Pre-test and post-test) and Interview

Quantitative and Qualitative

Pre-test --> treatment (the implementati on of digital storytelling) > post-test --> interview

The effects of implementing digital storytelling in the classroom have developed and helped the

students’ English

speaking skills. Moreover, it can help teachers to design their curricula with digital storytelling in the instruction so that students can be active and

In conclusion, Digital Storytelling Website (DSW) was a suitable tool for first year students at Suranaree University of Technology for increasing their knowledge of English. Moreover, it

Code Title Teaching

Models Topics

Participants

Problems/Goal Method Sampling Validation Gathering Instruments

Analysis

Techniques Procedures Results/discussion

Conclusion

on self-directed

learners.

was a means for increasing

students’

motivation to improve and practice their English speaking skill.

108IC C2008 LTME

Using Video Podcast to Enhance

Students’

Learning Experien ce in Engineeri ng

Learning-Teaching Media

Podcast

University Students - Non-English Department (Engineerin g) (16 participants )

Evaluate the effectiveness of integrating podcast in teaching engineering course, both graduate and undergraduate level..

Survey NA NA Assessment Quantitative

Giving some questions in the end of the product of podcast project (peer-reviewed)

Over 90% of returned survey commented that the video podcast episodes are very useful, especially when they are doing homework assignments, because they can go back to look for what they were missing in the lectures.

Based on the survey and assessment, it is found that such technology can provide us

with an

important tool

for the

delivery of course contents in order to enhance the learning experience of students. Furthermore, students will feel

empowered to learn with technology

and be

comfortable with, and capable of excelling in, diverse learning environment with various tools and technologies

The results

suggested that students were able to enjoy enhanced learning experience and outcomes.

109IC C2008 LTMA

Using Web-Based Language

Learning-Teaching Materials

Web

University Students - Non-English

Looks at ways of using Web-based language

NA NA NA Questionna_ire Quantitative

Distributing questionnaire

to get

Participants in WBLL sessions using the Web site showed positive

Overall, the students showed positive

Recommendation: It is recommended that the Web site should

Code Title Teaching

Models Topics

Participants

Problems/Goal Method Sampling Validation Gathering Instruments

Analysis

Techniques Procedures Results/discussion

Conclusion

on Learning

Activities in the ESL Classroo m

Department (Intensive Course for Overseas Students (ELICOS) (12 Students)

learning (WBLL) activities and reports the results of a WBLL project that developed a Web site as a supplementary resource for teaching English as a second language (ESL) and tested the Web site with a group of students in an ESL context.

students' opinion

attitudes toward

WBLL and

expressed the view that they would like to use

more Web

activities during and outside class time.

attitudes toward the use of the Web, agreed that they enjoyed

the Web

activities and would like to use more WBLL activities during and outside class time.

conjunction with classroom teaching and should be further developed to improve a broader range of student abilities and motivate student learning. Further studies are also recommended to look at the impact of the use of WBLL activities on

students’ language

development and, as a result, to improve our understanding and knowledge of ways of using WBLL in the ESL classroom.

110IC C2016 LTME

Electroni c Flashcard s inside the Classroo m: Practical and Effective

Learning-Teaching Media

Electroni c Flashcar

ds

Senior High School Students (12 Students)

Evaluate the effectiveness of using computer- versus paper-based flashcards as a learning tool within the context of the secondary foreign language classroom in learning new vocabulary.

NA NA NA

Tests (pre-test and post-test)

Quantitative

Pre-test --> treatment --> post-test

Results showed a significant difference when students practiced with

computerized flashcards and paper-based flashcards. Participants performed better after having studied with electronic flashcards than they did after studying with paper-based flashcards.

Electronic flashcards can provide a method that is shown to be academically effective.

Recommendation:

the author

recommends conducting the research with a larger number of participants. It would also be interesting to see the long-term results of the study methods (how students would perform on the same quizzes a month later)