skills, which are listening, reading, speaking and writing. However, it is also been considered one of the most complex skills of the teaching-learning process.
a. The Nature of Speaking
Levelt 1989 proposed that speech production involves four major processes, which are conceptualization, formulation, articulation, and self-
monitoring. Conceptualization is concerned with planning the message content. Speaker checks everything that occurs in the interaction to ensure that the
communication goes to plan. After conceptualization, speaker is being a formulator. The formulator finds the words and phrases to express meaning,
sequencing them, and putting in appropriate grammatical markers. The third process, articulation, involves the motor control of articulator organs, such as lips,
tongue, teeth, mouth cavity, and breath. The last stage, self monitoring, is concerned with language users being able to identify and self-correct mistakes.
All this happen very fast and, to be successful, depends on automation Bygate, 1987 as reviewed by Carter and Nunan, 2001.
The nature of speech production and the time constraint result on the characteristic of spoken language that is different to the written one. Gabrielatos
1992 cited that the syntax of the spoken language tends to be less complicated than written language Brown and Yule, 1983. In the spoken language, instances
of “ungrammatical” utterances are common McCarthy, 1991; pauses, repetition and false starts are rather frequent Brown and Yule, 1983. It also uses “time-
creating devices”, such as filters, pauses, and hesitations Bygate, 1987. Contrasted to the written language, the spoken one has immediate feedback Van
Lier, 1995.
In order to speak in another language, possessing language competence is not sufficient; one should have communicative competence. Nunan 1991 stated
that communicative competence includes linguistic competence, sociolinguistic and conversational skills that enable the speaker to know how to say what to
whom, and when.
b. Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques
Brown 2001 stated that there are several principles of designing speaking techniques:
a. Use techniques that cover learner needs Use techniques that cover learner needs, from language-based focus on
accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and fluency. When doing a task such as game, discussions, and role play, make sure that the tasks
include techniques designed to help learners to perceive and use the building blocks of language.
b. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques Many learners equate being able to speak a language as knowing the
language and therefore view learning the language as learning how to speak the language. Therefore if they do not learn how to speak or do not get any
opportunity to speak, they may get de-motivated and lose interest in learning. The right activities which are taught in the right way can raise general learner
motivation. Teacher also needs to help learners to see how the activities will benefit them.
c. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts. Learners need to be introduced to real interaction pattern, such as the basic
interactional pattern as follow: initiate, respond, and follow up. That pattern could be introduced through the use of dialogue to be read or listening activity before a
spoken task. One should be remembered is to keep the models meaningful. d. Provide appropriate feedback and correction
Learners may get feedback not only from the teacher; in ESL situation they may get such feedback “out there” beyond the classroom. Yet, teacher still
needs to give corrective feedback that are appropriate for the moment. e. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening
Many interactive techniques that involve speaking will also of course include listening. Teacher can get benefits by integrating these two skills since
they can reinforce one another. Skills in producing language are often initiated through comprehension.
f. Give students opportunity to initiate oral communication Part of oral communication competence is the ability to initiate
conversation, to nominate topics, to ask questions, to control conversations, and to change the subject.
g. Encourage the development of speaking strategies Learners use communication strategies in order to compensate their
imperfect mastery of the language when faced with a communicative need, such as paraphrasing, miming, or even reducing the message. Learners may have not
thought about developing their personal strategies for oral communicative
purpose, so teacher may give a chance to practice such strategies as asking for clarification What?, using fillers Uh, I mean, Well, or using conversation
maintenance cues Uh, huh, Right, Yeah, Okay, Hm. In summary, the design of a set of speaking instructional materials should
consider the use of techniques that cover the spectrum of learners’ needs, from language based focus on accuracy to massage-based focus on interaction,
meaning, and fluency. The technique should be intrinsically motivating. It also should encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful context as well as
the development of speaking techniques. Integrating the natural link between speaking and listening since these two skills is beneficial. The technique should
give opportunities to students to initiate oral communication. And, finally make sure that the technique provide appropriate channel for feedback and correction.
c. Type of Classroom Activity
