xvii identical, better or their adverbial counterparts identically, similarly, less, and so
on, to forge links with previously mentioned entities. 1
Personal reference
West African dwarf sheep are found roaming about the towns and villages in many southern parts of West Africa in small flocks. They
thrive and breed successfully in areas of trypanosomiasis risk. Their
coat colour is either predominantly white with irregular black patches, or black marked with white patches.
2 Demonstrative reference
Be careful of wasp, bees and hornets. These are dangerous pests.
3 Comparative reference
Beecher Stowe gives a moving account of the horrors of slavery.
Clemens’ treatment of the issue in the classic novel Huckleberry Finn is
lighter but more subtle.
2.1.2.2 Substitution
Substitution is used where a speaker or writer wishes to avoid the repetition of a lexical item and is able to drawn on one of the grammatical
resources of the language to replace the item. Halliday and Hasan 1976:88 define substitution in simplest terms as the replacement of one item by another.
According to them substitution is a relation between linguistic items, such as words or phrases and a relation on the lexicogrammatical level, the level
of grammar and vocabulary, or linguistic form.
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xviii Substitution, on the other hand, is a relation within the text. A
substitution is sort of counter which is used in place of the repetition of a particular item. For example, in
1 My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.
2 You think Joan already knows? - I think everybody does.
one and does are both substitutes: one substitutes for axe, and does for knows. The example would be entirely possible to ‘replace’ one by axe and does by knows.
It follows that, as a general rule, the substitutes item has the same structural function as that for which it substitutes. In the above example one and
axe are both Head in the nominal group; and does and knows are both Head in the verbal group.
Since substitution is a grammatical relation, a relation in the wording rather than in the meaning, the different types of substitution are defined
grammatically rather than semantically. The criterion is the grammatical function of the substitute item. The substitute may function as a noun, as a verb, or as a
clause. To these correspond the three types of substitution: nominal, verbal, and clausal. The following is a list of the items that occur as substitutes; the list is very
short: Nominal : one, ones; same
Verbal : do Clausal : so, not
In nominal substitutes, one, ones and same can stand in place of Nominal Groups and Head Nouns, as in examples:
1 ‘Would you like some sandwiches?’
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xix ‘Please pass the ones with cucumber in.’
2 ‘I’m having chicken and rice.’
‘I’ll have the same.’ 3
In an experiment, some children were given six cardboard discs each in a different colour. They were then asked to choose the colour they like
best. The majority chose the blue one. The verbal substitute is do. This operates as Head of a verbal group, in
the place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and its position is always final in the group. Here are two examples:
1 ‘I don’t know the meaning of half those long words, and, what’s more, I
don’t believe you do either.’ 2
‘We met in Brazil. Do you remember?’ ‘Yes, we must have done.’
Here do in the first sentence substitutes for know the meaning of half those long words. And done in the second sentence substitutes for met in Brazil.
There is one further type of substitution in which what is presupposed is not an element within the clause but an entire clause. The words used as
substitutes are so and not. In clausal substitution the entire clause is presupposed, and the contrasting element is outside the clause. For example,
Is there going to be an earthquake? – It says so. Here the so presupposes the whole of the clause there’s going to be an
earthquake, and the contrastive environment is provided by the says which is outside it.
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2.1.2.3 Ellipsis
