An Analysis of Grammatical Cohesion on Abstracts of Students’ Theses of Linguistics Department Postgraduate Studies of University of Sumatera Utara

AN ANALYSIS OF GRAMMATICAL COHESION ON ABSTRACTS OF STUDENTS’ THESES OF LINGUISTICS DEPARTMENT POSTGRADUATE STUDIES OF UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA

A THESIS

BY

ELPAN JUANDI SIMANJORANG REG. NO 060705032

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LETTERS

UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA MEDAN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Praise and majesty to the Almighty God for His blessing and guidance to the writer in completing this thesis.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor and my co- supervisor, Prof. Dra. T. Silvana Sinar, M.A., Ph.D and Dr. Drs. Syahron Lubis, M.A for their guidance, support, advice, constructive comments during the writing of this thesis.

My sincere gratitude also goes to the Dean of Faculty of Letters, University of Sumatera Utara, Drs. Syaifuddin, M.A, Ph.D, the Head and the Secretary of English Department, Dra. Swesana Mardia Lubis, M. Hum and Drs. Parlindungan Purba, M.Hum, and also all of the lecturers and the staffs of English Department for the facilities and opportunities given to me during my study in this university.

My special thanks to my beloved parents, M.H Simanjorang and M br. Purba, my beloved brother Santodes Ardilex Simanjorang, and also my beloved sister Enny Jurisly Simanjorang for giving me a great love, supports and attentions. My special thanks too are expressed to BerTha Ch Girsang. I do really appreciate your attentions and supports.

My thanks are also addressed to all of my friends: Ateng Sijabat, Debora Parhusip, Dix Saragih, Hendra Simbolon, Ilda, Joni Simatupang, Junastri Siahaan, Manogu Sihombing, Miss Damanik, Nellissa, Nofa Saragih, Novi Hutahean, Rances Tampubolon, Roma Simbolon, and Yosi Renata Panjaitan. Thanks for our friendship and your supports.

I also would like to thank the students of 2006. Thanks for our friendship and time that we have spent together.

May God bless us. Amin

Medan, June 2010 The Writer

Elpan Juandi Simanjorang Reg. No: 060705032

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I, Elpan Juandi Simanjorang, declare that I am the sole writer of this thesis. Except where reference is made in the text of this thesis, this thesis contains no material published else where or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or award another degree.

No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgments in the main text of this thesis. This thesis has not been submitted for the award of another degree in any tertiary education.

Signed:

COPYRIGHT DECLARATION

Name : Elpan Juandi Simanjorang

Title of Thesis : An Analysis of Grammatical Cohesion on Abstracts of Students’ Theses of Linguistics Department Postgraduate Studies of University of Sumatera Utara

Qualification : S-1/ Sarjana Department : English

I am willing that my thesis should be available for reproduction at the discretion of the Librarian of University of Sumatera Utara, Faculty of Letters, English Department on the understanding that users are made aware for their obligation under law of the Republic of Indonesia.

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ABSTRAK

Penelitian ini yang berjudul “An Analysis of Grammatical Cohesion on Abstracts of Students’ Theses of Linguistics Department Postgraduate Studies of University of Sumatera Utara” membahas analisis wacana, khususnya tentang kohesi gramatikal dalam wacana abstrak. Penelitian ini mempunyai beberapa tujuan, yaitu untuk menggambarkan jenis kohesi gramatikal dan mendapatkan jenis kohesi gramatikal yang paling dominan digunakan dalam abstrak tesis. Analisis empat kategori kohesi gramatikal di dalam penelitian ini menggunakan pengklasifikasian yang dikemukakan oleh Halliday dan Hasan. Untuk mendapatkan kohesi gramatikal yang paling dominan digunakan formula yang dikembangkan oleh Bungin(2001,290). Penelitian ini menemukan 141 kalimat yang mengandung kohesi gramatikal yang diaplikasikan dalam abstrak tesis. Kohesi gramatikal diklasifikasikan menjadi emat jenis yaitu referensi, substitusi, ellipsis, dan konjungsi. Kohesi gramatikal yang paling dominan adalah konjungsi sebanyak 103 (73.1%), diikuti oleh referensi sebanyak 35 (24.8%), substitusi sebanyak 2 (1.4%), dan ellipsis sebanyak 1 (0.7%).

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ii

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION ... iv

COPYRIGHT DECLARATION ... v

ABSTRACT ... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Background of Analysis ... 1

1.2 The Problems of Analysis ... 3

1.3 The Objectives of Analysis ... 3

1.4 The Scope of Analysis ... 4

1.5 The Significances of Analysis ... 4

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Theoretical Review ... 5

2.1.1 The Definition of Cohesion ... 5

2.1.2 Types of Grammatical Cohesion ... 6

2.1.2.1 Reference ... 6

2.1.2.2 Substitution ... 9

2.1.2.3 Ellipsis ... 12

2.1.2.4 Conjunction ... 13

2.1.3 The Definition of Abstract ... 15

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

3.1 Data Source ... 19

3.2 Data Collecting Method ... 19

3.3 Data Analyzing Method ... 20

3.4 Technique in Analyzing the Data ... 21

CHAPTER IV THE ANALYSIS OF GRAMMATICAL COHESION 4.1 Introduction ... 22

4.2 The Analysis of Reference ... 23

4.3 The Analysis of Substitution ... 32

4.4 The Analysis of Ellipsis ... 33

4.5 The Analysis of Conjunction ... 35

4.6 Discussion ... 47

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions ... 49

5.2 Suggestions ... 49

BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES

ABSTRAK

Penelitian ini yang berjudul “An Analysis of Grammatical Cohesion on Abstracts of Students’ Theses of Linguistics Department Postgraduate Studies of University of Sumatera Utara” membahas analisis wacana, khususnya tentang kohesi gramatikal dalam wacana abstrak. Penelitian ini mempunyai beberapa tujuan, yaitu untuk menggambarkan jenis kohesi gramatikal dan mendapatkan jenis kohesi gramatikal yang paling dominan digunakan dalam abstrak tesis. Analisis empat kategori kohesi gramatikal di dalam penelitian ini menggunakan pengklasifikasian yang dikemukakan oleh Halliday dan Hasan. Untuk mendapatkan kohesi gramatikal yang paling dominan digunakan formula yang dikembangkan oleh Bungin(2001,290). Penelitian ini menemukan 141 kalimat yang mengandung kohesi gramatikal yang diaplikasikan dalam abstrak tesis. Kohesi gramatikal diklasifikasikan menjadi emat jenis yaitu referensi, substitusi, ellipsis, dan konjungsi. Kohesi gramatikal yang paling dominan adalah konjungsi sebanyak 103 (73.1%), diikuti oleh referensi sebanyak 35 (24.8%), substitusi sebanyak 2 (1.4%), dan ellipsis sebanyak 1 (0.7%).

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1The Background of Analysis

Language is a system of communication such that the expression side is either spoken sounds or written symbols (often letters). The content side is made up by the meaning (Hammarström, 1976:1). It means that language is an instrument for conveying meaning and communicating some ideas either oral or written.

Language is realized by text and discourse. Text and discourse deal with the various devices used by speakers and writers when they knit coherence and cohesive utterance(s).

Discourse analysis is the study of the relationship between the language and contexts in which it is used. Whether it is written text of all kinds or spoken data. Referring to Brown and Yule (1984:1) that the analysis of discourse, is necessarily, the analysis of language in use. When it says language in use it means sentences, clauses or a linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts.

Text or discourse admitted as the high level of the language unit. It can stand for the most complex idea of speakers or writers that a sentence has failed to do. It can also be described as one of the most complete highest or largest linguistic unit as the above sentences and clauses, which contains cohesive and coherent continuously (Stubbs 1983:1).

Hartman and Stork (1972) define discourse as a text which forms a fairly complete unit, which is usually restricted to the successive utterances of a single

speaker conveying a message. The paragraphs that build discourse have relevance to each other. A single sentence or a paragraph was developed and described by another sentence or paragraph in a cohesive and coherent and make a complete unit.

Concerning cohesion, Halliday (1994:170) refers to the resources within language that provide continuity in a text, above and over that is provided by clause structures and clause complexes. Therefore, cohesive relations are non-structural relations, which help the text hang together. There are two kinds of cohesion, grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. Grammatical cohesion consists of reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. Lexical cohesion consists of reiteration and collocation.

The writer chooses abstract as the source text for investigating the data because it has the standard. The contents of an abstract provide the relationships between or among words in a text. Therefore, the writer is interested in doing grammatical cohesion analysis on abstracts of students’ theses of Linguistics Department Postgraduate Studies of University of Sumatera Utara.

Regarding to an abstract, Lancaster (1998:94) says it a brief but accurate representation of the contents of a document. The use of abstract is essential in some scientific works, online research, directory, seminar, and paper. Students are obliged to write an abstract as an internal part of their theses. Because of its importance, abstract must be written cohesively so the readers get the message of the abstract clearly.

In this thesis, the writer only chooses grammatical cohesion to be analyzed. The reasons of choosing grammatical cohesion due to the clarification

of abstract writing. Grammatical cohesion can support the cohesiveness of an abstract. Another reason of choosing grammatical cohesion due to the relation of texture. The cohesive relation that exists in text provides the texture.

To relate to Halliday topic of this thesis which is forming on grammatical cohesion, the writer applies Halliday and Hasan’s (1976) classification about grammatical cohesion as the base of analysis. The reason to choose this classification because it enables the writer to obtain a practical way of understanding and evaluating the structure of a written in text of an abstract.

1.2The Problems of Analysis

Based on the background stated previously that there are four categories of grammatical cohesion. The writer has some problems to discuss, they are:

1. What grammatical cohesion exists in the chosen abstracts?

2. What is the dominant type of grammatical cohesion occuring in the chosen abstracts?

1.3The Objectives of Analysis

As stated at the problems above, the writer will achieve some objectives to answer the problem of the analysis. They are such as follows:

1. To find out the grammatical cohesion that exists in the chosen abstracts.

2. To find out the dominant type of grammatical cohesion that occurs in the chosen abstracts.

1.4The Scope of Analysis

It is important to limit the analysis and the object of the analysis in order to get a clear and satisfactory result. Therefore, the writer would like to focus only on the grammatical cohesion namely reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction based on Halliday and Hasan’s classification (1976).

1.5The Significances of Analysis

The results of the analysis are expected to be beneficial both theoretically and practically. At the theoretical level, the results of the analysis are expected to enrich the study of grammatical cohesion. On a practical level, the results of this analysis are expected to provide significant contribution in terms of learning grammatical cohesion, so this thesis can use as reference for another analysis.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical Review

2.1.1 The Definition of Cohesion

The term cohesive has been defined in various ways. Some researchers apply the term cohesion to the surface structure of the text. Cohesion sometimes been applied to smaller units of language in the text. Other researchers have defined cohesion as continuity in words and sentence structure.

Cohesion may be crudely defined as the way certain words or grammatical features of a sentence can connect that sentence to its predecessors (and successors) in a text (Hoey 1991:3). A text is in part organized, in part created, by the presence in each sentence of these elements that require the reader to look to the surrounding sentences for their interpretation. Phenomena that had resisted satisfactory handling within sentence-bound grammars, such as pronominalization, ellipsis, and sentence conjunction, were found in such studies to be not only well handled once textual factors were taken into account but capable in turn of casting light on the nature of text itself.

Halliday and Hasan (1976:4) state that the concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text.

Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it. When this

happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text.

Halliday and Hasan (1976:5) also argue that cohesion is part of the system of a language. The potential for cohesion lies in the systematic resources of reference, ellipsis and so on that are built into the language itself. The actualization of cohesion in any given instance, however, depends not merely on the selection of some option from within these resources, but also on the presence of some other element which resolves the presupposition that this set up.

For Halliday and Hasan, the organization of text (which they term texture) is made up (in large part) of relationships amongst items in the text, some semantic, some grammatical, which they refer to as cohesive ties.

2.1.2 Types of Grammatical Cohesion

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976) cohesion can be divided into two types: grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. The previous refer to a combination of terms sentences that form grammatical aspect. The latter refers to a combination of terms between sentences that form lexical component.

Grammatical cohesion can be divided into four kinds. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

2.1.2.1 Reference

Reference is a grammatical cohesion device in a text that can only be interpreted with reference either to some other parts of the text or to the world experienced by the sender and the receiver of the text.

Thomas and Merier (1995:95) state that the term reference, as used by Halliday and Hasan is an extension of the term as used in philosophy and some types of semantics to mean an act of referring to entities outside the discourse (‘in the real world’ as it were, although we need to remember that ‘real world’ can include imaginary worlds, such as we find in fiction or myth). Reference in this sense is not necessarily textually cohesive. For example, when out walking at night, a person might point to the moon and say to a companion, ‘Look at that’. In this case, that refers to an entity which is identifiable in the situation of utterance. The word that here is an example of noncohesive exophoric reference or reference outside the text.

If, on the other hand, the speaker says, ‘Look at the moon’ and the companion replies, ‘I can’t see it’ or ‘Where is it?’ with it referring to the previously mentioned moon, and cohesion is established. The latter is known as endophoric reference or reference to something within the text (in this case the short exchange about the moon).

Strictly speaking, of course, it is speakers or writers who refer to entities, using expressions for the purpose, but as a shorthand device we often talk about words or expressions referring to each other and say that endophoric reference occurs when two or more expressions refer to the same entity.

Endophoric reference is classified into cathaphoric and anaphoric reference. Cataphoric is forward pointing, in the sense that in a text the unnamed expression, usually a pronoun or demonstrative, appears first and the named expression appears second, as in example below from a computer manual, where the cohesive tie is indicated in bold type.

To see how it works, type VER and press ENTER. You will see this on your screen:

MS-DOS Version 6.00

This forms a cohesive tie with the message MS-DOS Version 6.00. In this case of

cataphoric reference, the reader does not fully understand the sense of this until he or she has read on to the next line in the text.

The second type of endophoric reference, and by far the most common, is called anaphoric reference. This type is backward looking in the sense that the named item appears first and the pronoun appears second.

Examples: (1) All this year’s students passed. It was very gratifying. (2) Jill washed the clothes and then ironed them.

The word It in the first sentence refers to ‘All this year’s students passed’ and in the second sentence them refers to the clothes.

Halliday and Hasan (1976:37) state that there are three types of reference: personal, demonstrative, and comparative. Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the category of person. Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of proximity. Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity.

What is known as personal reference is dependent on the use of personal pronouns (I, she, he, it, they, me, etc) possessive adjectives (my, your, their, etc), and possessive pronouns (mine, yours, theirs). Demonstrative reference is dependent on the use of determiners (this, these, that, those) and adjuncts (here, now, then, there), and comparative reference uses adjectives like same, other,

identical, better or their adverbial counterparts identically, similarly, less, and so on, to forge links with previously mentioned entities.

(1) Personal reference

West African dwarf sheep are found roaming about the towns and villages in many southern parts of West Africa in small flocks. They thrive and breed successfully in areas of trypanosomiasis risk. Their coat colour is either predominantly white with irregular black patches, or black marked with white patches.

(2) Demonstrative reference

Be careful of wasp, bees and hornets. These are dangerous pests. (3) Comparative reference

Beecher Stowe gives a moving account of the horrors of slavery. Clemens’ treatment of the issue in the classic novel Huckleberry Finn is lighter but more subtle.

2.1.2.2 Substitution

Substitution is used where a speaker or writer wishes to avoid the repetition of a lexical item and is able to drawn on one of the grammatical resources of the language to replace the item. Halliday and Hasan (1976:88) define substitution in simplest terms as the replacement of one item by another.

According to them substitution is a relation between linguistic items, such as words or phrases and a relation on the lexicogrammatical level, the level of grammar and vocabulary, or linguistic form.

Substitution, on the other hand, is a relation within the text. A substitution is sort of counter which is used in place of the repetition of a particular item. For example, in

(1) My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.

(2) You think Joan already knows? - I think everybody does.

one and does are both substitutes: one substitutes for axe, and does for knows. The

example would be entirely possible to ‘replace’ one by axe and does by knows. It follows that, as a general rule, the substitutes item has the same structural function as that for which it substitutes. In the above example one and axe are both Head in the nominal group; and does and knows are both Head in the verbal group.

Since substitution is a grammatical relation, a relation in the wording rather than in the meaning, the different types of substitution are defined grammatically rather than semantically. The criterion is the grammatical function of the substitute item. The substitute may function as a noun, as a verb, or as a clause. To these correspond the three types of substitution: nominal, verbal, and clausal. The following is a list of the items that occur as substitutes; the list is very short:

Nominal : one, ones; same Verbal : do

Clausal : so, not

In nominal substitutes, one, ones and same can stand in place of Nominal Groups and Head Nouns, as in examples:

‘Please pass the ones with cucumber in.’ (2) ‘I’m having chicken and rice.’

‘I’ll have the same.’

(3) In an experiment, some children were given six cardboard discs each in a different colour. They were then asked to choose the colour they like best. The majority chose the blue one.

The verbal substitute is do. This operates as Head of a verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and its position is always final in the group. Here are two examples:

(1) ‘I don’t know the meaning of half those long words, and, what’s more, I don’t believe you do either.’

(2) ‘We met in Brazil. Do you remember?’ ‘Yes, we must have done.’

Here do in the first sentence substitutes for know the meaning of half those long

words. And done in the second sentence substitutes for met in Brazil.

There is one further type of substitution in which what is presupposed is not an element within the clause but an entire clause. The words used as substitutes are so and not. In clausal substitution the entire clause is presupposed, and the contrasting element is outside the clause. For example,

Is there going to be an earthquake? – It says so.

Here the so presupposes the whole of the clause there’s going to be an

earthquake, and the contrastive environment is provided by the says which is

2.1.2.3 Ellipsis

In the same cohesive class as substitution, we find ellipsis, or the omission of words, groups or clauses (referred to by Halliday as ‘substitution by zero).

When we talk of ellipsis, we are not referring to any and every instance in which there is some information that the speaker has to supply from his own evidence. That would apply to practically every sentence that is ever spoken or written, and would be of no help in explaining the nature of a text. We are referring specifically to sentences, clauses, etc whose structure is such as to presuppose some preceding item, which then serves as the source of the missing information. An elliptical item is one which, as it were, leaves specific structural slots to be filled from elsewhere. This is exactly the same as presupposition by substitution, whereas in ellipsis nothing is inserted into the slot. That is why we say that ellipsis can be regarded as substitution by zero. For example,

Joan brought some carnations, and Catherine some sweet peas.

The structure of the second clause is Subject and Complement. This structure normally appears only in clauses in which at least one element, the Predicator, is presupposed, to be supplied from the preceding clause. Note that there is no possible alternative interpretation here; the second clause can be interpreted only as Catherine brought some sweet peas.

Where there is ellipsis, there is a presupposing, in the structure, that something is to be supplied. This is not quite the same thing as saying that we can tell from the structure of an item whether it is elliptical or not. In other words, we can take as a general guide the notion that ellipsis occurs when something that is

structurally necessary is left unsaid; there is a sense of incompleteness associated with it.

Ellipsis takes place in similar grammatical environments to substitution. Thus, we have nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis.

The grammar of Nominal Ellipsis permits the omission of Head Nouns in a Nominal Group as in example below where two in the final clause means two

cucumber sandwiches.

‘Have you got the cucumber sandwiches cut for Lady Bracknell?’ ‘Yes, sir.’

(Algernon inspects them and takes two.)

Verbal ellipsis is common in all short form answers and responses as is exemplified in example below where there are two examples of verbal ellipsis in responses. In both cases the tie is with save you in the first sentence of the verbal exchange. In these instances, it is the lexical verb that is omitted.

‘I’ll help you. I’ll save you.’ ‘You can’t.’ [Ellipsis] ‘I can.’ [Ellipsis]

And the other example below illustrates clausal ellipsis; the word don’t stands in place of don’t open the door.

Get up quick and open the door. If you don’t, they will break it down.

2.1.2.4 Conjunction

The fourth and final type of cohesive relation that we find in the grammar is that of conjunction. Conjunction is rather different in nature from the

other cohesive relations. Conjunctive elements are cohesive not in themselves but indirectly, by virtue of their specific meanings; they are not primarily devices for reaching out into the preceding (or following) text, but they express certain meanings which presuppose the presence of other components in the discourse.

With conjunction, on the other hand, we move into a different type of semantic relation, one which is no longer any kind of a search instruction, but a specification of the way in which what is to follow is systematically connected to what has gone before.

Conjunction is the term used to describe the cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text in such a way as to demonstrate a meaningful relationship between them. It is also possible to perceive this process as the linking of ideas, events or other phenomena. This linking or joining is achieved by the use of conjunctive adjuncts, which are sometimes called cohesive conjunctives (for example, then, for this reason, on the other hand). These are words or expressions that have two textual functions: they indicate conjunction and at the same time usually indicate the type of relationship that operates between the elements being joined (Thomas and Merier 1995:98).

Halliday and Hasan (1976:238) handle conjunctive adjuncts under four main headings: additive, adversative, causal and temporal.

Additive conjunction serves to further the discourse topic. It differs from the paratactic relation of coordination by introducing the new clause as an extra piece of information, perhaps reinforcing what has already been said. For example,

The party got to the summit and had their lunch. And they had time for a rest afterwards.

Here the first and coordinates the propositions the party got to the summit and had

their lunch. The second and, however, introduces a supplementary idea.

Adversative conjunction is explained as introducing an item of information which is ‘contrary to expectation’. The expectation may be derived from the content of what is being said, or from the communication process, the speaker-hearer situation. For example,

All the figures were correct; they’d been checked. Yet the total came out wrong.

Causal conjunction marks the relationships of reason, consequence and purposes. He didn’t pass this time, so he will have to resit.

Temporal conjunction specifies the time sequence relationship which exists between sentences.

First he forgot his money, then he forgot his keys. Previously he had never absent for a day.

2.1.3 The Definition of Abstract

An abstract is a brief but accurate representation of the contents of a document. A true abstract, while it may include words occurring in the document, is a piece of text created by the abstractor rather than a direct quotation from the author (Lancaster 1998:94). It means that an abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review or any in depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper’s

purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a document, acting as the point of entry for any given scientific document or paper.

An abstract is a self contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline; an abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rater than an excerpted passage

There are two types of abstract: indicative (sometimes called descriptive) and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have

different components and styles. Lancaster (1998:95) says that indicative abstract simply describes (indicates) what the document is about, whereas the informative abstract attempts to summarize the substance of the document, including the result.

That is, an indicative abstract might mention what types of results are achieved in a study but the informative abstract would summarize the result themselves. Cremmins in Lancaster (1998:96) explains that indicative abstracts may contain information on purpose, scope, or methodology but will not present results, conclusions, or recommendations. On the other hand, the informative abstract may include information on purpose, scope, and methods but must also contain results, conclusions, or recommendations. For some purposes, a good informative abstract might act as a reasonable substitute for reading a document.

An indicative abstract is unlikely to serve as a substitute in this way. Its main purpose would be to indicate to readers of the abstract whether or not they would be likely to want to read the original. For obvious reasons, informative abstract tend to be longer than indicative. They are also more difficult to write. Indeed, while it will usually be possible to write an informative abstract for an

experimental study, it may be almost impossible to do so for a theoretical study or an opinion piece. For this reason, informative abstracts occur more frequently in science and technology than they do in the social sciences or humanities.

2.2 Applied Research Review

The idea on writing this thesis based on some linguistics books that supply relevant information to the topic. The writer refers to some related analysis based on the cohesion in discourse.

1. Kunto (2009) has analyzed cohesion on editorial of “Deutschland’s” magazine. He found the existence of grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion in the magazine. Grammatical cohesion is classified into four kinds; they are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. The reference consists of 82 sentences (68.33%), substitution consists of 4 sentences (3.33%), ellipsis consists of 2 sentences (1.66%), and conjunction consists of 32 sentences (26.66%). Lexical cohesion is classified into four kinds; they are repetition, synonymy, hyponymy, and antonymy. Repetition consists of 21 sentences (17.5%), synonymy

consists of 2 sentences (1.66%), hyponymy consists of 3 sentences (2.5%), and antonymy consists of 3 sentences (2.5%).

2. Arfanti (2002) has analyzed cohesion in Melayu Serdang folklore. She analyzed three types of Melayu Serdang folklore; they are Panglima Bukit Cermin (legend), Puteri Burung Kuau (myth), and Anak Orang Miskin (tale). The result shown that grammatical cohesion devices are more dominant than the lexical cohesive devices in the three types of the folklore. Endophoric pronoun reference is the most dominant grammatical cohesive device in the three folklores.

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 3.1 Data Source

The primary data source of this analysis is written text, which were taken from abstracts of students’ theses of Linguistics Department Postgraduate Studies of University Sumatera Utara.

3.2 Data Collecting Method

In collecting the data, the writer applies content analysis method. In content analysis method, the writer has to find the phenomena to be analyzed. It means that the writer has to determine what the object of the analysis is, and then chooses the analysis unit from the object

The data will be taken by using probability-sampling design; it means that the writer chooses the sample of the analysis randomly because the population has the same probability of being sample as stated by Bungin (2005:106):

“Rancangan sampel probabilitas, artinya penarikan sampel didasarkan atas pemikiran bahwa keseluruhan unit populasi memiliki kesempatan yang sama untuk dijadikan sampel. Karena semua memiliki kesempatan yang sama untuk menjadi sampel, maka untuk menjadi sampel, unit-unit populasi harus di random.”

The writer chooses ten theses abstracts from linguistics masters program at USU for this analysis. They are:

1. Analisis Penerjemahan dan Pemaknaan Istilah Teknis: Studi Kasus pada Terjemahan Dokumen Kontrak.

2. Struktur Percakapan dalam Bahasa Alas.

3. Analisis Tema pada Pantun Melayu: Suatu Kajian Fungsional Sistemik. 4. Interferensi Gramatika Bahasa Karo dalam Bahasa Indonesia Tulis Murid

Kelas 6 Sekolah Dasar Kabupaten Karo.

5. Suatu Kajian Pragmatik tentang Slogan Signatural Iklan Kosmetik.

6. Pemerolehan Genre Tulisan oleh Pembelajar Indonesia (Studi Kasus pada Komposisi Siswa Sekolah Dasar Harapan 1 Medan).

7. Proses Morfemis dalam Bahasa Arab.

8. Kemampuan Berbahasa Anak Usia 3-4 Tahun (Prasekolah) di Play Group Tunas Mekar Medan: Tinjauan Psikolinguistik.

9. Hubungan Logis dalam Bahasa Jepang.

10. Analisis Kesalahan Leksikal di dalam Karangan Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris pada Piliteknik Immanuel Medan.

3.3 Data Analyzing Method

In analyzing the data, the writer applies qualitative descriptive strategy. Bungin (2001:290) states that:

“Penggunaan strategi deskriptif kualitatif dimulai dari analisis berbagai data yang terhimpun dari suatu penelitian, kemudian bergerak ke arah pembentukan kesipulan kategoris atau ciri-ciri umum tertentu.”

The writer analyzed the data by making descriptions about each component of the grammatical cohesion and giving examples that were taken from the chosen abstracts. The writer also applied quantitative method in order to find the most dominant grammatical item occurred in the abstracts by using the Bungin’s formula:

N = fx/n x 100 %

N = percentage of the grammatical item. fx = number of each grammatical item. n = total number of all data.

3.4 Technique in Analyzing the Data.

The systematic procedures in conducting the analysis are as follows: 1. Reading the chosen abstracts.

2. Identifying the words, which belongs to grammatical cohesion.

3. Underlining and categorizing the grammatical item according to their group.

4. Making the percentage of each grammatical item. 5. Determining the most dominant grammatical item. 6. Describing the result and conclusion.

CHAPTER IV

THE ANALYSIS OF GRAMMATICAL COHESION

4.1 Introduction

As has been said in the previous chapter that grammatical cohesion refers to a combination of terms between sentences that form grammatical aspect that can be divided into four types; reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

In this chapter the writer puts forward the analysis of ten abstracts and discusses the results of the analysis. There are ten abstracts that were chosen for the analysis of grammatical cohesion. There are all taken from a thesis found in the library. As has been said in the methodology chapter, the ten abstracts are entitled:

1. Analisis Penerjemahan dan Pemaknaan Istilah Teknis: Studi Kasus pada Terjemahan Dokumen Kontrak.

2. Struktur Percakapan dalam Bahasa Alas.

3. Analisis Tema pada Pantun Melayu: Suatu Kajian Fungsional Sistemik. 4. Interferensi Gramatika Bahasa Karo dalam Bahasa Indonesia Tulis Murid

Kelas 6 Sekolah Dasar Kabupaten Karo.

5. Suatu Kajian Pragmatik tentang Slogan Signatural Iklan Kosmetik. 6. Pemerolehan Genre Tulisan oleh Pembelajar Indonesia (Studi Kasus pada

Komposisi Siswa Sekolah Dasar Harapan 1 Medan). 7. Proses Morfemis dalam Bahasa Arab.

8. Kemampuan Berbahasa Anak Usia 3-4 Tahun (Prasekolah) di Play

9. Hubungan Logis dalam Bahasa Jepang.

10. Analisis Kesalahan Leksikal di dalam Karangan Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris pada Piliteknik Immanuel Medan.

The analysis begins with reference, followed by substitution, ellipsis and conjunction.

4.2 The Analysis of Reference

Reference occurs when something signalled for retrieval. It can only be interpreted with reference either to some other parts of the text.

Here are the analyses of reference taken from the chosen abstracts:

4.2.1 Abstract 1: Analisis Penerjemahan dan Pemaknaan Istilah Teknis: Studi Kasus pada Terjemahan Dokumen Kontrak.

1. There are six contract documents (translation products) as the source of data in this analysis. It can be identified that the terms used in the document are mostly related to economical terms.

2. In reading a text as a product of translation, it can be found some problems to understand the content of the text.

3. In reading a text as a product of translation, it can be found some problems to understand the content of the text. This is caused by some factors, for example, the different culture between writers and readers,

which consequently can cause the different view of the word concept that is intended by the writers.

4. Translators may choose two methods of translating, namely direct or literal translation (borrowing, calque, literal translation), and obligue translation (transposition, modulation, equivalence, adaptation). So, in analyzing the products of translation, the writer focuses the analysis on these items of the method.

5. The results of analysis show that there are some complexities in understanding the translation procedures and methods that should be mastered. Those that are related to ways of terms identification, the application of translation method with its various problems, such as direct or literal translation, and obligue translation, and translating the foreign terms, need to be observed.

In (1), It refers to six contract documents; in (2) it refers to text as a product of translation; in (3) this refers to some problems to understand the content of the text; in (4) these refers to direct or literal translation

(borrowing, calque, literal translation), and obligue translation

(transposition, modulation, equivalence, adaptation); in (5) those refers some complexities in understanding the translation procedures and methods

4.2.2 Abstract 2: Struktur Percakapan dalam Bahasa Alas.

1. The findings indicate that the structure of conversation in bahasa Alas has disruption and not always linear. It is concluded that the structure of conversation in bahasa Alas is unique and suggested that the research of conversation in bahasa Alas is continued.

The word it refers to the findings.

4.2.3 Abstract 3: Analisis Tema pada Pantun Melayu: Suatu Kajian Fungsional Sistemik.

1. The arrangements Pantun verses are beautifully presented by the creator and its content contains advices, suggestions, criticism, and education. 2. On this study the pantun is interpreted and discussed adopting an LSF

theory in the aspect of context of situation, the analysis of thematic structure and its utterance function of Malay poetry.

3. Referring to the findings above, it is suggested that those teachers are urged to adopt this study as material in teaching about literature as local value particularly in the literary products of North Sumatra Province. Moreover, it suggested that the Malay poetry should be made for medium communication media presented by government for official ceremonies.

In (1), its refers to the arrangements Pantun verses; in (2) its refers to the pantun; in (3) it refers to the findings.

4.2.4 Abstract 4: Interferensi Gramatika Bahasa Karo dalam Bahasa Indonesia Tulis Murid Kelas 6 Sekolah Dasar Kabupaten Karo.

1. The result of this analysis also finds that there are some similarities and differences between Karonese and Indonesian morphemes. And that is why on a certain aspect Indonesian students get some difficulties in using those morphemes.

2. The result of this analysis also finds that there are some similarities and differences between Karonese and Indonesian morphemes. And that is why on a certain aspect Indonesian students get some difficulties in using those morphemes. The similarities also found between Indonesian and Karonese vocabulary but there are also some forms that are the same but different in meaning. These are suspected as the cause of lexical interferences.

In (1), those refers to Karonese and Indonesian morphemes; in (2) these refers to some similarities and differences.

4.2.5 Abstract 5: Suatu Kajian Pragmatik tentang Slogan Signatural Iklan Kosmetik.

1. The objectives of the analysis are to identify the forms of signature slogans of cosmetics advertisement, to describe their informative and communicative intentions, the presumptions of their optimal relevances, the interpretation of their optimal relevances.

2. From the analysis, it is discovered that firstly…

3. Secondly, the informative intentions of signature slogans of cosmetics advertisements are communicators’ intentions to make manifest or more manifest to the audience that they have some sets of assumptions.

4. Thirdly, the communicative intentions of signature slogans of cosmetic advertisements are to make them mutually manifest to audiences and communicators that they have these informative intentions, namely, the information found in the signature slogans of cosmetic advertisements. 5. Thirdly, the communicative intentions of signature slogans of cosmetic

advertisements are to make them mutually manifest to audiences and communicators that they have these informative intentions, namely, the information found in the signature slogans of cosmetic advertisements.

In (1), their refers to signature slogans of cosmetics advertisement; in (2) it refers to the analysis; in (3) they refers to the informative intentions of signature slogans of cosmetics advertisements; in (4) them and they refer to the communicative intentions of signature slogans of cosmetic advertisements; in (5) these refers to the information found in the signature slogans of cosmetic advertisements.

4.2.6 Abstract 6: Pemerolehan Genre Tulisan oleh Pembelajar Indonesia (Studi Kasus pada Komposisi Siswa Sekolah Dasar Harapan 1 Medan).

1. Someone’s writing ability has something to do with his knowledge on text types (genre). It develops according to the stages of written genre development.

2. Based on the analysis, it has been found out that the respondents taken from Year III up to VI may produce four kinds of written genre.

In (1), It refers to someone’s writing ability; in (2) it refers to the analysis.

4.2.7 Abstract 7: Proses Morfemis dalam Bahasa Arab.

1. This thesis deals with morphological sub system, especially about word forming from its original form into the other forms.

The word its refers to word forming.

4.2.8 Abstract 8: Kemampuan Berbahasa Anak Usia 3-4 Tahun (Prasekolah) di

Play Group Tunas Mekar Medan: Tinjauan Psikolinguistik.

1. While the children have competence, however in phonological requisition they experienced the change in voiced and unvoiced sounds, i.e., Pronunciation of word “mau” to “mo” as vowel (a) release and conversion

of vowel (u) to (o), they also made a weak consonant release (l) in word of two phrases, they made reduplication process, and then reduction and simplification of phrases. In syntax requisition they were able of using the grammatical sentences, and in semantic requisition they more tended to use the denotative meaning.

2. Thus, it could be seen that children were born with potential of requisition whatever language, including Indonesia language. This competence led the child to understand the gradual sentences from simple to complex forms.

In (1), they refers to the children; in (2) This refers to potential of requisition whatever language.

4.2.9 Abstract 9: Hubungan Logis dalam Bahasa Jepang.

1. This study is based on theories of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) as developed by M.A.K Halliday with an objective to describe the patterns of clause relations, discover the most dominant logical relations and in what context they occur.

2. The hypotaxis elaboration occurs as the most dominant type because the description of the five discourses are described repeatedly with different words and sentences yet, they have the same meanings.

3. The hypotaxis locution occurs as the most dominant type because the authors of the discourse have interpreted the meanings of the expression from the sources (language user) based on their ideas or consideration.

In (1), they refers to clause relations and logical relations; in (2) they refers to the hypotaxis elaboration; in (3) their refers to the authors.

4.2.10 Abstract 10: Analisis Kesalahan Leksikal di dalam Karangan Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris pada Piliteknik Immanuel Medan.

1. The result of this thesis showed that the lexical principle of Transfer was most dominant one, it is 61,23%, then Synonymy 18,11%, Approximation 10,14%, Circumlocution or Paraphrase 9,78% and the fewest is the usage of Superordinate terms 0,72%. This can be interpreted the students tented to use Transfer that was influenced by their mother tongue.

2. This can be interpreted the students tented to use Transfer that was influenced by their mother tongue.

3. The lack of vocabulary in the target language and the inability of the students to master the difference of the word meaning were also as factors that caused them in difficulty to use a correct word in a correct context effectively and efficiently.

In (1), this refers to the result of this thesis; in (2) their refers to the students; in (3) them refers to the students.

THE PERCENTAGE OF REFERENCE

No. Reference Total %

1 Abstract 1 5 14.3

2 Abstract 2 1 2.9

3 Abstract 3 4 11.4

4 Abstract 4 2 5.7

5 Abstract 5 8 22.8

6 Abstract 6 6 17.1

7 Abstract 7 1 2.9

8 Abstract 8 2 5.7

9 Abstract 9 3 8.6

10 Abstract 10 3 8.6

Total 35 100

Based on the data analyzed, it is found that the total number of reference that existed in the chosen abstracts are 27. Abstract 1 consists of 5 (five) data of references, Abstract 2 consists of 1 (one) data, Abstract 3 consists of 4 (four) data, Abstract 4 consists of 2 (two) data, Abstract 5 consists of 8 (eight) data, Abstract 6 consists of 2 (two) data, Abstract 7 consist of 1 (one) data, Abstract 8 consists of 6 (six) data, Abstract 9 consist of 3 (three) data, and Abstract 10 consists of 3 (three) data.

4.3 The Analysis of Substitution

Substitution occurs when a word or a group of words substitute by a lexical item.

Here are the analyses of substitution taken from the chosen abstracts:

4.3.1 Abstract 2: Struktur Percakapan dalam Bahasa Alas

1. Conversation as a text has structure as a clause does.

The word does substitutes for structure.

4.3.2 Abstract 10: Analisis Kesalahan Leksikal di dalam Karangan Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris pada Piliteknik Immanuel Medan.

1. The result of this research showed that the lexical principle of transfer was most dominant one.

THE PERCENTAGE OF SUBSTITUTION

No. Reference Total %

1 Abstract 1 0 0%

2 Abstract 2 1 50%

3 Abstract 3 0 0%

4 Abstract 4 0 0%

5 Abstract 5 0 0%

6 Abstract 6 0 0%

7 Abstract 7 0 0%

8 Abstract 8 0 0%

9 Abstract 9 0 0%

10 Abstract 10 1 50%

Total 2 100%

Based on the data analyzed, it is found that the total number of substitution that existed in the chosen abstracts are 2 (two). They are in abstract 2 and abstract 10. Abstract 2 consists of 1 (one) data of substitution and abstract 10 consists of 1 (one) data.

4.4 The Analysis of Ellipsis

Ellipsis occurs when there is omission of words, groups or clauses. Here is the analysis of substitution taken from the chosen abstracts:

4.4.1 Abstract 4: Interferensi Gramatikal Bahasa Karo dalam Bahasa Indonesia Tulis Murid Kelas 6 Sekolah Dasar Kabupaten Karo.

1. The finding shows that grammatical interferences at the level of morphology is about 52,14%, at the level of lexis is about 35,91%, at the level of orthography is about 6,90%, and finally at the level of syntax is about 5,80%.

The sentence above is elliptical because the words grammatical interferences are omitted. The sentence would become:

The finding shows that grammatical interferences at the level of

morphology is about 52,14%, grammatical interferences at the level of lexis is about 35,91%, grammatical interferences at the level of orthography is about 6,90%, and finally grammatical interferences at the level of syntax is about 5,80%.

THE PERCENTAGE OF ELLIPSIS

No. Reference Total %

1 Abstract 1 0 0%

2 Abstract 2 0 0%

4 Abstract 4 1 100%

5 Abstract 5 0 0%

6 Abstract 6 0 0%

7 Abstract 7 0 0%

8 Abstract 8 0 0%

9 Abstract 9 0 0%

10 Abstract 10 0 0%

Total 1 100%

Based on the data analyzed, it is found that the total number of ellipsis that existed in the chosen abstracts is 1 (one). It is in abstract 4 that consist of 1 (one) data of ellipsis.

4.5 The Analysis of Conjunction

Conjunction is the term used to describe the cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text in such a way as to demonstrate a meaningful relationship between them.

Here are the analyses of conjunction taken from the chosen abstracts:

4.5.1 Abstract 1: Analisis Penerjemahan dan Pemaknaan Istilah Teknis: Studi Kasus pada Terjemahan Dokumen Kontrak.

1. This is caused by some factors, for example, the different culture between writers and readers, which consequently can cause the different view of the word concept that is intended by the writers.

2. Translators may choose two methods of translating, namely direct or literal translation (borrowing, calque, literal translation), and obligue translation (transposition, modulation, equivalence, adaptation).

3. So, in analyzing the products of translation, the writer focuses the analysis on these items of the method.

4. In order to get detailed analysis, the analysis is also focused on the meaning field in order to find out the meanings of the term of both SL and TL.

5. The results of analysis show that there are some complexities in understanding the translation procedures and methods that should be mastered.

6. Those that are related to ways of terms identification, the application of translation method with its various problems, such as direct or literal translation, and obligue translation, and translating the foreign terms, need to be observed.

In (1), for example and and originate additive conjunction; in (2) or and and originate additive conjunction; in (3) so originates causal conjunction; in (4) also originates additive conjunction; in (5) and originates additive conjunction; in (6) or and and originate additive conjunction.

4.5.2 Abstract 2: Struktur Percakapan dalam Bahasa Alas.

1. The difference between clause and a text that a clause consists of phrase while a text consists of semantic units. Bahasa Alas as one the Indonesia languages, has the uniqueness and still exists as medium of instructions both geographically and outside needs preservation.

2. The problems in this research are how the structure of conversation in Bahasa Alas is constructed and realized by mood, and in what condition the discrepancies between speech function and mood exist.

3. The aims of the research are to know how the structure of conversation in Bahasa Alas constructed and realized by mood, and in what condition the discrepancies exist.

4. The data used are recorded conversations based on context both within proposition and proposal.

5. The data are analyzed based on the formula proposed by Martin, namely the analysis of proposition and proposal in conversation.

6. The findings indicate that the structure of conversation in Bahasa Alas has disrupt ion and not always linear. It is concluded that the structure of conversation in Bahasa Alas is unique and suggested that the research of conversation in Bahasa Alas is continued.

7. Speaker need concentrate on context in both transaction and interaction and equalize between proposition and proposal in expressing ‘thanks’.

4.5.3 Abstract 3: Analisis Tema pada Pantun Melayu: Suatu Kajian Fungsional Sistemik.

1. The arrangements Pantun verses is beautifully presented by the creator and its content contains advices, suggestions, criticism and education.

2. On this study the pantun is interpreted and discussed adopting an LSF theory in the aspect of context of situation, the analysis of thematic structure and its utterance function of Malay poetry.

3. The method adopted to this study is a qualitatively applied with an LSF approach of the writer and Halliday, also Puitika Sastra Melayu concept introduced.

4. The procedure in analysis of the data included the following steps: (1) collecting the data, (2) analyzing the data, (3) analyzing the context to situation of poetry comprising of field, mode and tenor, then classify the structure of the theme in the text of Deli Malay’s poetry and (4) analysis of the speech function in Malay poetry.

5. The theme in sense of Deli Malay’s poetry refers to the universe and natural environment (Malay cosmology). As occupying the nature faithfully, Malay human yearning for observing in commitment and be careful, that every nature of environment such as river, sea, and the estuary, as well as plants and vegetables shall be presented in image and full sense to those audience being living in society community ignoring the literate and traditional culture.

6. Moreover, it suggested that the Malay poetry should be made for medium communication media presented by government for official ceremonies.

In (1), and originates additive conjunction; in (2) and originates additive conjunction; in (3) and and also originate additive conjunction; in (4) and originates additive conjunction and then originates causal conjunction; in (5) and originates additive conjunction; in (6) moreover originates additive conjunction.

4.5.4 Abstract 4: Interferensi Gramatika Bahasa Karo dalam Bahasa Indonesia Tulis Murid Kelas 6 Sekolah Dasar Kabupaten Karo.

1. Interferences meant in this study cover ones which are related to morphology, lexis, syntax, and orthography.

2. The aim of this analysis is to describe the interferences in the field of morphology, lexis, syntax, and also on the field of orthography.

3. The methodology applied is one proposed by Nawawi and Martini (1996), Surakhmad (1982), and Weinreich (1971).

4. The finding shows that grammatical interferences at the level of morphology is about 52,14%, at the level of lexis is about 35,91%, at the level of orthography is about 6,90%, and finally at the level of syntax is about 5,80%.

5. The result of this analysis also finds that there are some similarities and differences between Karonese and Indonesian morphemes. And that is

why on a certain aspect Indonesian students get some difficulties in using those morphemes.

6. The similarities also found between Indonesia and Karonese vocabulary but there are also some forms that are the same but different in meaning.

In (1), and originates additive conjunction; in (2) and also originates additive conjunction; in (3) and originates additive conjunction; in (4) and originates additive conjunction; in (5) also and and originate additive conjunction; in (6) also and and originate additive conjunction and but originates adversative conjunction.

4.5.5 Abstract 5: Suatu Kajian Pragmatik tentang Slogan Signatural Iklan Kosmetik.

1. …to describe their informative and communicative intensions,…

2. Sperber’s and Wilson’s relevance theory (1986, 1995) is used in the analysis.

3. From the analysis, it is discovered that firstly, there exists 34 (thirty four) signature slogans…

4. Secondly, the informative intentions of signature slogans of cosmetic advertisements are communicators’ intentions to make manifest or more manifest to the audience…

5. Thirdly, the communicative intentions of signature slogans of cosmetic advertisement are to make them mutually manifest to audiences and communicators…

6. Fourthly, the presumptions of the optimal relevances and the ostensive stimulus of the signature…

7. Fifthly, the interpretations of the optimal relevances of signature slogans of cosmetic advertisement….

In (1) and originates additive conjunction; in (2) and originates additive conjunction; in (3) firstly originates temporal conjunction; in (4) secondly originates temporal conjunction and or originates additive conjunction; in (5) thirdly originates temporal conjunction and and originates additive conjunction; in (6) fourthly originates temporal conjunction; in (7) fifthly originates temporal conjunction.

4.5.6 Abstract 6: Pemerolehan Genre Tulisan oleh Pembelajar Indonesia (Studi Kasus pada Komposisi Siswa Sekolah Dasar Harapan 1 Medan).

1. The fact that it is not easy for students either of primary school or universities ‘to write’ has become the background of the study.

2. The data analyzed in this research are compositions of students of Sekolah Dasar Harapan 1 Medan which are grouped into two different setting-controlled and free.

3. Systemic Functional Linguistics has been applied as the theoretical framework and the analysis is conducted…

4. Based on the analysis, it has been found out that the respondents taken from Year III up to VI may produce four kinds of written genre, i.e. recount, report, description, and exposition.

5. It is the fact that male students tend to write in the forms of exposition and those of female tend to choose narrative writing.

In (1) or originates additive conjunction; in (2) and originates additive conjunction; in (3) and originates additive conjunction; in (4) and originates additive conjunction; in (5) and originates additive conjunction.

4.5.7 Abstract 7: Proses Morfemis dalam Bahasa Arab.

1. The objectives of the research are to describe the word forming in Arabic based on 7 (seven) processes in morphemical process; affixation, reduplication, conversion, internal modification, suppletion, and abbreviation, and also to describe about the productivity of morphemic process in Arabic.

2. The result indicates that the affixation process covering prefix, infix, suffix, confix, and transfix are discovered.

3. The composition processes, suppletion, internal modification and abbreviation are discovered in Arabic, while reduplication and conversion process is undiscovered.

4. Word forming by shuffling through position of permanent morpheme and also by converting sound…

In (1) and and and also originate additive conjunction; in (2) and originates additive conjunction; in (3) and originates additive conjunction; in (4) and also originates additive conjunction.

4.5.8 Abstract 8: Kemampuan Berbahasa Anak Usia 3-4 Tahun (Prasekolah) di

Play Group Tunas Mekar Medan: Tinjauan Psikolinguistik.

1. Psycholinguistic review was a psycholinguistics research using qualitative method in requisition and analysis of data.

2. Essentially the language requisition of children in 3-4 years of age started with phonological, semantic and syntax requisitions.

3. The data of research was analyzed in basic on phonology, syntax and semantics.

4. The research indicated that the respondents, children of 3-4 years in Play Group Tunas Mekar Medan, have language competence either from phonological, syntax or semantic requisition.

5. While the children have competence, however in phonological requisition they experienced the change in voiced and unvoiced sounds, i.e., Pronunciation of word “mau” to “mo” as vowel (a) release and conversion of vowel (u) to (o), they also made a weak consonant release (l) in word of two phrases, they made reduplication process, and then reduction and simplification of phrases. In syntax requisition they were able of using the

grammatical sentences, and in semantic requisition they more tended to use the denotative meaning.

In (1), and originates additive conjunction; in (2) and originates additive conjunction; in (3) and originates additive conjunction; in (4) or originates additive conjunction; in (5) however originates adversative conjunction, and originates additive conjunction and then originates causal conjunction.

4.5.9 Abstract 9: Hubungan Logis dalam Bahasa Jepang.

1. …discover the most dominant logical relations and in what context they occur.

2. Of the ten variables of logical relations observed, 151 expansion units and 18 projection units are discovered.

3. Hypotaxis elaboration and hypotaxis locution are found out to be the most dominant types.

4. The hypotaxis elaboration occurs as the most dominant type because the description of the five discourses are described repeatedly with different words and sentences yet, they have the same meanings.

5. The hypotaxis locution occurs as the most dominant type because the authors of the discourse have interpreted the meanings of the expression from the sources (language user) based on their ideas or consideration. 6. Meanwhile, the pattern of projection relation has the configuration…

In (1), and originates additive conjunction; in (2) and originates additive conjunction; in (3) and originates additive conjunction; in (4) and originates additive conjunction and yet originates adversative conjunction; in (5) or originates additive conjunction; in (6) meanwhile originates temporal conjunction.

Abstract 10: Analisis Kesalahan Leksikal di dalam Karangan Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris pada Piliteknik Immanuel Medan.

1. …to describe the lexical frequency which was dominant to use, and to explain the causes why the errors of the lexical usage occurred.

2. The theory used in this research is the 5 lexical principles by Blum and Levenston, namely lexical principles of usage of Superordinate terms, Approximation, Synonymy, Transfer and Circumlocution or Paraphrase. 3. The result of this thesis showed that the lexical principle of Transfer was

most dominant one, it is 61,23%, then Synonymy 18,11%, Approximation 10,14%, Circumlocution or Paraphrase 9,78% and the fewest is the usage of Superordinate terms 0,72%. This can be interpreted the students tented to use Transfer that was influenced by their mother tongue.

4. The lack of vocabulary in the target language and the inability of the students to master the difference of the word meaning were also as factors that caused them in difficulty to use a correct word in a correct context effectively and efficiently.

In (1), and originates additive conjunction; in (2) and and or originate additive conjunction; in (3) then originates causal conjunction, or and and originate additive conjunction; in (4) and and also originate additive conjunction; in (5) besides and also originate additive conjunction.

THE PERCENTAGE OF CONJUNCTION

No. Reference Total %

1 Abstract 1 10 9.7 %

2 Abstract 2 15 14.6 %

3 Abstract 3 15 14.6 %

4 Abstract 4 14 13.6 %

5 Abstract 5 10 9.7 %

6 Abstract 6 5 4.8 %

7 Abstract 7 6 5.8 %

8 Abstract 8 10 9.7 %

9 Abstract 9 7 6.8 %

10 Abstract 10 11 10.7 %

Total 103 100%

Based on the data analyzed, it is found that the total number of conjunction that existed in the chosen abstracts are 103. Abstract 1 consists of 10 (ten) data of conjunctions, Abstract 2 consists of 15 (fifth teen) data, Abstract 3 consists of 15 (fifth teen) data, Abstract 4 consists of 14 (four teen) data, Abstract 5 consists of 10 (ten) data, Abstract 6 consists of 5 (five) data, Abstract 7 consist

of (six) data, Abstract 8 consists of 10 (ten) data, Abstract 9 consist of 7 (seven) data, and Abstract 10 consists of 11 (eleven) data.

4.6 Discussion

Table below shows the percentage of the existence of the four categories of grammatical cohesion recapitulated from the data. The existences of grammatical cohesion are proved in the chosen abstracts. They have been used in the text of the abstracts with reference 27 data (20.3%), substitution 2 data (1.5%), ellipsis 1 (0.7%), and conjunction 103 data (77.4%).

THE PERCENTAGE OF GRAMMATICAL COHESION

No Lexical Cohesion Total %

1 Reference 35 24.8

2 Substitution 2 1.4

3 Ellipsis 1 0.7

4 Conjunction 103 73.1

Total 141 100

From the data that have been found in the chosen abstracts, it can be clearly seen that the four categories of grammatical cohesion exist in abstract of students’ theses. Conjunction occurred in the first place, it means conjunction is often used in abstract where the abstractor wants to relate word or sentences to each other, serves to further the discourse topic. Conjunction expresses certain meanings that presuppose the presence of other components in the context.

In the second place there is reference. It occurred as the second dominant because the abstractor wants to relate one element of the text to another one for its interpretation. The reason of using reference is to avoid repetition so that the readers easily get the information that is signalled for retrieval or an item that indicates the identity of what is being talked about from the context.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions

After describing the four categories of grammatical cohesion (reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction and analyzing them, there come conclusions. The conclusions are as follow:

1. Conjunction is the most dominant grammatical cohesion existed in abstract of students’ theses. From 141 lexical cohesion in the ten chosen abstracts, 103 data (73.1%) is conjunction.

2. The second dominant grammatical cohesion existed in the chosen abstracts are reference 35 data (24.8%).

3. The third dominant grammatical cohesion existed in the chosen abstracts are substitution 2 data (1.4%).

4. The less dominant grammatical cohesion existed in the chosen abstracts are ellipsis 1 data (0.7%).

5.2 Suggestions

The writer suggests that the readers should do a deeper study or research in grammatical cohesion in order to get better understanding of grammatical cohesion. Besides that, the writer hopes that the future researcher will analyze it in different scope and different object. The writer hopes that the students or future researcher can gain the knowledge from many sources whether they are textbooks or research article.

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Arfanti, Yulia. “Kohesi pada Cerita Rakyat Melayu Sedang.” A Thesis of Linguistic Department, Medan, 2002.

Bloor, Thomas and Meries Bloor. 1995. The Functional Analysis of English: A

Halliday Approach. China: Edward Arnold Limited

Brown, Gillian and George Yule. 1984. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bungin, B. 2001. Metodologi Penelitian Sosial: Format-format Kuantitatif dan

Kualitatif. Surabaya: Airlangga University Press.

Bungin, B. 2005. Metodologi Penelitian Kuantitatif: Komunikasi, Ekonomi, dan

Kebijakan Publik Serta Ilmu-ilmu Sosial Lainnya. Jakarta: Prenada

Media Group

Halliday, M. 1994. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold.

Halliday, M. R. Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman Group Ltd. Hammarström, G. 1976. Linguistic Units and Items. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Hartman, R.R.K. and Stork, F.C. 1972. Dictionary of Language and Linguistics.

London: Applied Science Publishers Ltd.

Hoey, M. 1991. Patterns of Lexis in Text. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Kunto, Eric. “Kekohesifan dalam Wacana Tajuk Rencana Majalah

“Deutschland” Terbitan Tahun 2008.” A Thesis of Faculty of Cultural

Science, Yogyakarta, 2009.

Lancaster, F. 1998. Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice. New York: Thomson-Shore Inc.

Stubbs, M. 1983. Discourse Analysis: The Sociolinguistics Analysis of Natural Language. England: Basic Blackwell Publisher Ltd.

In (1), and originates additive conjunction; in (2) and originates additive conjunction; in (3) and originates additive conjunction; in (4) and originates additive conjunction and yet originates adversative conjunction; in (5) or originates additive conjunction; in (6) meanwhile originates temporal conjunction.

Abstract 10: Analisis Kesalahan Leksikal di dalam Karangan Pembelajar Bahasa Inggris pada Piliteknik Immanuel Medan.

1. …to describe the lexical frequency which was dominant to use, and to explain the causes why the errors of the lexical usage occurred.

2. The theory used in this research is the 5 lexical principles by Blum and Levenston, namely lexical principles of usage of Superordinate terms, Approximation, Synonymy, Transfer and Circumlocution or Paraphrase. 3. The result of this thesis showed that the lexical principle of Transfer was

most dominant one, it is 61,23%, then Synonymy 18,11%, Approximation 10,14%, Circumlocution or Paraphrase 9,78% and the fewest is the usage of Superordinate terms 0,72%. This can be interpreted the students tented to use Transfer that was influenced by their mother tongue.

4. The lack of vocabulary in the target language and the inability of the students to master the difference of the word meaning were also as factors that caused them in difficulty to use a correct word in a correct context effectively and efficiently.

In (1), and originates additive conjunction; in (2) and and or originate additive conjunction; in (3) then originates causal conjunction, or and and originate additive conjunction; in (4) and and also originate additive conjunction; in (5) besides and also originate additive conjunction.

THE PERCENTAGE OF CONJUNCTION

No. Reference Total %

1 Abstract 1 10 9.7 %

2 Abstract 2 15 14.6 %

3 Abstract 3 15 14.6 %

4 Abstract 4 14 13.6 %

5 Abstract 5 10 9.7 %

6 Abstract 6 5 4.8 %

7 Abstract 7 6 5.8 %

8 Abstract 8 10 9.7 %

9 Abstract 9 7 6.8 %

10 Abstract 10 11 10.7 %

Total 103 100%

Based on the data analyzed, it is found that the total number of conjunction that existed in the chosen abstracts are 103. Abstract 1 consists of 10 (ten) data of conjunctions, Abstract 2 consists of 15 (fifth teen) data, Abstract 3 consists of 15 (fifth teen) data, Abstract 4 consists of 14 (four teen) data, Abstract 5 consists of 10 (ten) data, Abstract 6 consists of 5 (five) data, Abstract 7 consist

of (six) data, Abstract 8 consists of 10 (ten) data, Abstract 9 consist of 7 (seven) data, and Abstract 10 consists of 11 (eleven) data.

4.6 Discussion

Table below shows the percentage of the existence of the four categories of grammatical cohesion recapitulated from the data. The existences of grammatical cohesion are proved in the chosen abstracts. They have been used in the text of the abstracts with reference 27 data (20.3%), substitution 2 data (1.5%), ellipsis 1 (0.7%), and conjunction 103 data (77.4%).

THE PERCENTAGE OF GRAMMATICAL COHESION

No Lexical Cohesion Total %

1 Reference 35 24.8

2 Substitution 2 1.4

3 Ellipsis 1 0.7

4 Conjunction 103 73.1

Total 141 100

From the data that have been found in the chosen abstracts, it can be clearly seen that the four categories of grammatical cohesion exist in abstract of students’ theses. Conjunction occurred in the first place, it means conjunction is often used in abstract where the abstractor wants to relate word or sentences to each other, serves to further the discourse topic. Conjunction expresses certain meanings that presuppose the presence of other components in the context.

In the second place there is reference. It occurred as the second dominant because the abstractor wants to relate one element of the text to another one for its interpretation. The reason of using reference is to avoid repetition so that the readers easily get the information that is signalled for retrieval or an item that indicates the identity of what is being talked about from the context.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions

After describing the four categories of grammatical cohesion (reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction and analyzing them, there come conclusions. The conclusions are as follow:

1. Conjunction is the most dominant grammatical cohesion existed in abstract of students’ theses. From 141 lexical cohesion in the ten chosen abstracts, 103 data (73.1%) is conjunction.

2. The second dominant grammatical cohesion existed in the chosen abstracts are reference 35 data (24.8%).

3. The third dominant grammatical cohesion existed in the chosen abstracts are substitution 2 data (1.4%).

4. The less dominant grammatical cohesion existed in the chosen abstracts are ellipsis 1 data (0.7%).

5.2 Suggestions

The writer suggests that the readers should do a deeper study or research in grammatical cohesion in order to get better understanding of grammatical cohesion. Besides that, the writer hopes that the future researcher will analyze it in different scope and different object. The writer hopes that the students or future researcher can gain the knowledge from many sources whether they are textbooks or research article.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arfanti, Yulia. “Kohesi pada Cerita Rakyat Melayu Sedang.” A Thesis of Linguistic Department, Medan, 2002.

Bloor, Thomas and Meries Bloor. 1995. The Functional Analysis of English: A Halliday Approach. China: Edward Arnold Limited

Brown, Gillian and George Yule. 1984. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bungin, B. 2001. Metodologi Penelitian Sosial: Format-format Kuantitatif dan Kualitatif. Surabaya: Airlangga University Press.

Bungin, B. 2005. Metodologi Penelitian Kuantitatif: Komunikasi, Ekonomi, dan Kebijakan Publik Serta Ilmu-ilmu Sosial Lainnya. Jakarta: Prenada Media Group

Halliday, M. 1994. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold.

Halliday, M. R. Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman Group Ltd. Hammarström, G. 1976. Linguistic Units and Items. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Hartman, R.R.K. and Stork, F.C. 1972. Dictionary of Language and Linguistics.

London: Applied Science Publishers Ltd.

Hoey, M. 1991. Patterns of Lexis in Text. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Kunto, Eric. “Kekohesifan dalam Wacana Tajuk Rencana Majalah “Deutschland” Terbitan Tahun 2008.” A Thesis of Faculty of Cultural Science, Yogyakarta, 2009.

Lancaster, F. 1998. Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice. New York: Thomson-Shore Inc.

Stubbs, M. 1983. Discourse Analysis: The Sociolinguistics Analysis of Natural Language. England: Basic Blackwell Publisher Ltd.