Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

14 academic background, grade-point average, level of intelligence, reading level, background of the subject or topic, expectation of the course, scores on standardized achievement and aptitude tests, motivation for studying the subject, study habits, ability to work alone, vocational and cultural aspirations. Social factors include the information about age, maturity, relation among students, special talents, socioeconomic situation and relations among students. The other factors are learning conditions and learning styles. Moreover, Kemp 1977 states that learning conditions refer to group of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information p. 19. 3 Specifying the learning objectives Learning objectives indicate what learners are required to learn. Objectives are any abilities or behaviors that can be measured and observed clearly. Thus, the researcher has to specify the objectives clearly so that the learners are able to understand and achieve them. Kemp 1977 states that the objectives should be measurable and unambiguous p. 23. The researcher should consider the action verb which is used in specifying the learning objectives since action verb relates to certain level of objectives. According to Kemp 1977, there are three categories of objectives namely cognitive, psychomotor, and affective p. 24. The cognitive is mostly used in educational program which consists of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, and evaluation. 4 Organizing subject content Subject content is the selection and organization of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and 15 requirements, and attitudinal factors of any topics Kemp, 1977, p. 44. Subject content has to support the attainment of objective and students’ needs. 5 Developing pre-assessments The aim of developing pre-assessment is to determine the students’ background and present level of knowledge about the topic. There are two kinds of test in pre-assessment. The first one is prerequisite testing that determines whether the students have already had background knowledge of the topic. Whereas, the second is pretesting which is aimed to determine which objectives the students have already attained Kemp, 1977, p. 51. 6 Selecting teachinglearning activities and resources The aim of this part is selecting appropriate teachinglearning activities and resources that will treat the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives. The researcher must determine the most effective and efficient method and select materials to provide learning experiences that will utilize the content associated with each objective Kemp, 1977, p. 55. 7 Coordinating support services The designer should coordinate support services such as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. Support services must be considered at the same time instructional plans are being made and materials are being selected Kemp, 1977, p. 85. 8 Evaluating students’ learning Evaluation is needed in terms of the accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement. 16 The evaluation is conducted to check the outcome of the materials, whether they are successfully implemented or not Kemp, 1977, p. 91. Figure 2.1 illustrates the relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps. Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model Kemp, 1977, p. 9 Kemp’s instrument program development is considered as a system in which its components are interdependent. However, the researcher’s model still takes the objectives as a starting point and the evaluation as the end.

b. Yalden’s Instructional Design Model

Yalden 1987 explains that a communicative syllabus is a syllabus which Revise Support Services Learning Objectives Pre- Assessment Goals, Topics, and General Purposes Teaching Learning Activities, Resources Evaluation Subject Content Learner Characteris- tics 17 is designed for describing a classroom experience which more closely approximates an environment of real of language use. Moreover, after knowing the type of syllabus that will be applied, the teachers should prepare themselves in developing the instructional materials. Yalden presents a syllabus which considers the communicative needs of the learners. Moreover Yalden 1987 proposes seven steps to be considered in developing a language program p. 88. Those seven steps are discussed as follows. 1 Needs Surveys Conducting needs survey can gather information about the learners. The reason for conducting needs survey is to understand about the learners’ needs in order to establish realistic and acceptable objectives. Therefore, needs survey must include the identification of the communication requirements, personal needs, motivation, relevant characteristics of learners, and resources of the learners Yalden, 1987, p. 101. 2 Description of Purposes The purpose of this step is to clarify the purpose of the language program. The needs survey becomes the basis in developing the purpose of the program. It is important to establish the foundation for the major decision when the researcher is working out the next stage Yalden, 1987, p. 105. 3 Choice of a Syllabus Type In this stage, the researcher decides the syllabus type will be employed. Yalden 1987 states that there is no single model of syllabus design which is universally agreed upon p. 108. Thus, the researcher can combine more than one 18 syllabus in order to make the course design more reliable. 4 Proto- Syllabus This stage will give much information about the content in which the syllabus will have Yalden, 1987, p. 138. The researcher should produce the description of language and language use to elaborate in the program. Therefore, the researcher should be able to describe the content of the syllabus. 5 Pedagogical Syllabus This is a stage where the researcher should develop teaching, learning, and testing approaches. Yalden 1987 explains that the researcher chooses words and phrases based on the function and the topics. 6 Development and Implementation of Classroom Procedures Development and implementation of classroom procedures can be divided into three procedures. They are selection of exercise types and teaching techniques, preparation of lesson plans, and preparation of weekly schedules Yalden, 1987, p. 89. 7 Evaluation The final step is evaluation which has two significant aspects. Firstly, it evaluates the students in the program, and secondly, it evaluates the teaching as well as the over-all design of the course. The evaluation enables the researcher to revise the types and the content of the syllabus. In addition, this step is labeled as the recycling step because the whole steps can be started again at this step Yalden, 1987, p. 96. In order to give clearer explanation, Yalden’s language program development is illustrated in Figure 2.2.