taking. In conversation, speaker keep taking turns, and in the process of keeping turns, a speaker has to be able to see the point when transfer of role is possible. This is done
by Turn Construction Units TCU’s, units constructed to signal turn transfer. These units are realized in grammatical units considered as the end of turn cannot always
determine who would be the next speaker. For this, Sacks et al. 1974 note that at the end of TCU there are two possibilities of determining the allocation of turns. First, the
current speaker selects the next speaker. Second, if the current speaker does not select the next speaker, the speaker may self-select. Sacks and Schegloff explained a concept
to explain the ordeliness of conversation, that is, adjacency pairs, a main format in which talk is sequenced. Adjacency pairs is a sequence of two utterances which are
adjacent, produced by different speakers, ordered as a first part and second part, and typed, so that the first part requires a particular second part. The common adjacency
part is questionanswer sequence. The others are: requestgrant, offeraccepted, afferreject, etc.
2.1.2 Ethnography of Speaking
The ethnography of speaking or communication is an approach to discourse that is based on anthropology as critic of Dell Hymes to Chomsky’s well known
refocussing of linguistic theory on the explanation of competence –the tacit knowledge of the abstract rules of language. According to Hymes 1974 communicative
competence includes knowledge of how to engage in everyday conversation as well as other culrally constructed events, speech event. Speech event refers to activities that are
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directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech. It includes interaction such as a conversation at a party, ordering a meal, etc. However, the notion of
communication cannot be assumed to be constant across culture. Cultural conceptions of communication are deeply intertwined with conception of person, cultural values,
and world knowledge, such that instances of communication behavior are never free of the cultural belief and action system in which they occur. Hymes explained different
components of communication used to understand the social context of linguistic interactions, in a grid known as SPEAKING as has been explained in chapter one.
2.1.3 Interactional Sociolinguistics
The approach to discourse called interaction Sociolinguistics stems from anthropology, sociology, and linguistics, and shares the concerns of all three fields with
culture, society, and language. This approach was inspired by Gumperz 1982 and Goffman 1959 which was discuused by Eggins and Slade 1997:34. Gumperz
focuses on how people from different cultures may share grammatical knowledge of a language, but differenly contextualize what is said such that very different messages
are produced. He demonstrated that interactants from different socio-cultural backgrounds may hear and understand discourse differently according to their
interpretation of contextualization cues in discourse. Gumperz describes a number of problems that have arisen between Indian English speakers and British English speaker.
For instance, Indian English-speaking women working in a cafetaria were getting complaints from British English-speaking patrons about their rudeness. In looking at
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their conversatinal action, Gumperz dicovered that the British English patrons were atributing rudeness to the staff because of the workers’ intonation patterns when they
offered service. Instead of saying “Gravy” with a rising intonation, as British English speakers would to offer a service and be polite, the Indian Speaker were saying
“Gravy” with a falling intonation. For British English speakers, this conveyed an identity message the suggested you are not important, so just take it or leave it.
Whereas Goffman focuses on how language is situated in particular circumstance of social life, and how it adds or reflects different types of meaning and
structure to those circumstances. For Example, communicators may consciously work to created certain impression or may do inadvertently. Goffman describes this as the
differences between meanings that itentionally given and those that are given off. A person speaking to a group may work to present, telling a joke to get started, and so on.
On the other hand, if in speaking her voice cracks or she pauses just after a few words, people will consider her as nervous. This is categorized as meaning that was given off.
2.1.4 Variation Theory
