30 skill in the oral mode” Ekbatani, 2011: 3. Speaking deals with oral activity of
transferring meaning. In delivering a message, oral system is important in speaking. However, speaking as a productive skill should consider aspects which
are beneficial. One of the important aspects in speaking can be fluency. Another important thing in speaking is repetition. Harmer 2007: 346
says, “Repetition allows students to improve on what they did before.” By practicing speaking continually, it will help students improve their ability.
Howarth as cited in Harmer 2007: 346 assumes repetition as a process of speaking. That process can be showed as follows.
plan → perform→ analyze ←→repeat
Figure 2.3 Repetition as speaking process
Figure 2.3 explains that repetition is included in speaking process. The process involves plan, perform, analyze and repeat. By repetition, students have
more time to practice. Harmer 2007: 346 state s that “if students have a chance to
rehearse and try out, they will do more fluently in the second time.” Therefore, repetition is required in speaking.
b. Speaking Activities
Practicing speaking in the classroom is required. Harmer also provides some activities for speaking in the classroom. The classroom activities based on
31 Harmer 2007: 348-352 are divided into six activities. The first activity refers to
acting from a script. This activity allows students to act based on a play, film or a story in a book. They can also act dialogues that they write by themselves. The
examples of this activity are play scripts and acting out dialogue. The second activity is a communication game. A communication game is appropriate for
communication practice. “It can help students talking as quickly and fluently as
possible” Harmer, 2007: 349. The examples of the communication game are information-gap games, television and radio games, etc. The third activity is
discussion. Discussion invites students to have interaction to others. It can be implemented in a small group or whole-group. Here, communication can occur
since each student will speak each other. The example of discussion can be debate and unplanned discussion. The fourth activity is prepared talk. In this activity,
communication may also happen. Here, students are asked to make presentation. They should present a topic or something. The presentation is prepared so that
students can arrange well. Communication happens when a student transfers information by presenting. Besides, other student can ask question so answer and
question session is done here. The fifth activity is questionnaires. Teachers take a part in this activity. Teachers help students in preparing questionnaire. For
example, a questionnaire about the most interesting movie can be used in this activity. Teachers should help students if students need. The result of
questionnaire can be used as topic for discussion or prepared talk. When discussing or having prepared talk, communication may also exist. Thus,
questionnaire is included in speaking activities. The sixth activity refers to
32 simulation and role play. Simulation and role play can help students relate to the
real life context. Harmer 2007: 352 states, “Simulation and role play can encourage general oral fluency or train stude
nts for specific situation.” These activities also promote students to be creative.
Those speaking activities may be implemented in the classroom to encourage students to talk. Thus, communication can occur in the classroom. A lot
of activities can be used to help students communicate fluently. Those speaking activities are some of activities in speaking that can use to help students
communicate fluently. Teachers may apply those activities or use their own creativity to invites students to communicate.
In conclusion, theory of speaking is necessary in this research since speaking is a part of communication. Besides, this research also focused on
speaking. Although the Communication Practice Model applies the Fluency Development strand which involves four skills, the Communication Practice
Model provides communication practice in speaking. Consequently, the Communication Practice Model makes use of presentation, role play and
interview as communication practice.
6 Contextual Teaching Learning CTL
In this research, the Contextual Teaching Learning is used as a reference and theory for preparing materials for the model. The Contextual Teaching
Learning here refers to materials used in the model apply the Contextual Learning and they are based on real life. Besides, Brown 2001: 45 assumes that
33 “contextualization is a basic of the Communicative Language Teaching’s
principle.” Thus, Contextual Teaching Learning is employed in this research. The Contextual Teaching Learning is related to daily life context.
Moreover, according to United States Departement of Education Office of Vocational and Adult Education 2001 as cited in Smith 2006: 14, Contextual
Teaching Learning CTL is “a conception of teaching and learning that helps
teachers relating the subject matter co ntent to real world situation”. Thus, CTL
promote teachers to use daily life context, experience, or situation in real world in the teaching process. Besides, “Contextual learning is rooted in a constructivist
approach to teaching and learning which means individuals learn by constructing meaning by interacting with an interpreting their environment” Brown, 1998;
Dirkx, Amey and Haston, 1999 as cited in Imel, 2000. Therefore, it is clear that CTL deals with real situation that happens and puts it into teaching learning
process. CTL can be useful for students in learning process since CTL covers the
real situation which is suitable for students. Berns and Erickson 2001: 2 argue that CTL facilitate students to connect the content they are learning to the real life.
Students will be easier to learn since what they are learning is connected to reality. Relating to communication, CTL may include real communication that happens in
students’ life, such as students’ experience, students’ daily activity and so on. Furthermore, CTL should think about some important points to avoid
mistakes or problem in the teaching and learning process. Imel 2000 assumes that CTL considers some recommendations. The first is selecting an approach that
34 reflects contexts of
students’ live. The second is examining materials for bias; it means materials should not reinforcing existing stereotypes and myths. The third
is avoiding imposing the perspective of others. It means CTL should reflect background or situation or experience of students and let them build up their own
knowledge. The fourth is using the group as a resource. It refers to employ the social and distributive aspects. Teacher may be a partner of students.
Considering some recommendations can help teachers create conducive environment for CTL. Those recommendations offer what teachers should do
related to CTL. Using appropriate approach, good materials, students’ experiences, and a suitable source can promote CTL which is efficient and
conducive so that the teaching learning process can work well. Teachers may decide those recommendations that are suitable to meet the students’ need.
The Contextual Teaching Learning is suitable for students of the vocational high schools because students of the vocational high schools will learn
something related to their life. Berns and Erickson 2001 state that “CTL provides the means for teaching other sets of learning goals of require higher-
order thinking skills.” Thus, CTL also promotes students to think more since they should relate what they learn to real life context.
In conclusion, the Communication Practice Model also employs CTL. CTL is helpful in choosing materials that are related to the real context. Students
can relate the materials provided to their life experience. Since students are common with the materials in the Communication Practice Model, it will be
easier for them to learn. Communication can occur easily when students know
35 what they are discussing. It can be concluded that, the Communication Practice
Model uses also CTL in designing and developing materials.
7 Vocational High School
This part discusses the definition of vocational high school. In Indonesia, the vocational high schools have more or less similarities to general high school.
However, there is a significant difference between them. Vocational education belongs to an education that trains students for specific skill, ability, and career
Gordon, 2012. Thus, the focus of the vocational high schools is certain skills that students choose to be developed.
The vocational high schools deal with preparing students to work. Beside, Marsigit 2008:2 says, “Vocational education, sometimes called Career
and Technical Education CTE has its aim to prepare learners for careers that are based in manual or practical activities, occupation or vocation, hence the term, in
which the learner participates.” Thus, a vocational school is a school which offers vocational education. It means the students of the vocational schools are taught
the skills which are required to complete a particular job. The vocational schools provide knowledge and training for the students in order to prepare them to
compete and face the working world. The vocational schools offer instruction and particular experience in skill trades, such as broadcasting, carpentry, tourism, etc.
In addition, the vocational high schools educate and train students to have good behavior.
Berns and Erickson 2001 state that “vocational education means of preparing well-trained, compliant workers for that efficient society so
36 school should teach students the right work an
d moral habits.” It can be said that the vocational high schools promote students to have good skill and good habit to
prepare for working. The vocational education does not only teach students but also educates students so that students can have good personality, attitude and
behavior. The reason is that moral habit is considered in the vocational education. Formatting good habit will help students behave in their future.
In conclusion, the vocational high school theory is used in this research because the Communication Practice Model is intended for students of vocational
high school. By knowing what vocation school is, the Communication Practice Model can be prepared well and be suitable with the target of this research which
is the Communication Practice Model for the vocational high school s’ students. It
can be said that this theory is useful for designing the Communication Practice Model.
8 Adolescent Learners
Here, the theory of adolescent learners is presented. There are two main focuses. They are the nature of adolescence and adolescent learning.
a. The Nature of Adolescence
