CONCLUSIONS Proceedings International Seminar The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character, and Manifestation
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363 2. Understanding the kampong reality as an endogen force
which forms urbanism in Indonesia, and 3. Understanding modernization not as a westernization but as
an acculturative process between local and foreign values.
Kampong’s roles as a character giver
Kampong has a unique spatial configuration and different from other city parts. The uniqueness makes kampong has a
character and even plays a role in building the city character. Ways to understand kampong as a city physical character builder
are as follows: 1. By understanding a kampong and a city as one genre. Both
of them are artifacts. A city is a more complex one which consists of lots of parts. A whole city character can only be
explained by recognizing parts of the city’s characters. Kampong is an artifact which consists of simpler buildings
which are not monumental. 2.
By searching for the area’s character structure. It is difficult to understand by its various attributes. The structure can be
represented by a space configuration. 3. By distinguishing the kampong and city configuration. The
difference is the main prerequisite to understand the characters. A character cannot be noticed without comparing.
The quality of the spatial linkages between the kampong and city blocks
The quality is determined by the permeability of the framing. Physically, it is formed by the kampong entrance roads.
It is said to be a membrane in osmosis process. The flow through the membrane is not the same. The kampong informality flows
greater to the city rather than the city formality to the kampong. Therefore, it can be concluded that kampong plays a role in
urbanity forming in Indonesia. The quality of the spatial connection is determi
ned by the quality of the system’s elements which consist of four parts, i.e.: [1] outer parts urban blocks, [2]
frames, [3] connection paths, and [4] inner parts kampongs.
REFERENCES:
Balbo, Marcello 1993, “Urban Planning and the Fragmented City of
Developing Countries”, Third World Planning Review, vol. 115, hal. 23-35.
Colquhoun, A. 1989 Modernity and the Classical Tradition: Architectural Essay 1980-1987. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Dovey, Kim 1999, Framing Places: Mediating power in built form, London: Routledge.
Drakakis-Smith, David 1981, Urbanization, Housing and Development, London: coom Helm.
and Manifestation, Medan, 13
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364 Gans, H.J. 1962, The Urban Villagers, New York: Free Press.
Harvey, D. 1985, Consciousness and the Urban Experience: Studies in the History and Theory of Capitalist Urbanization.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Haryadi 1989,
Residents’ Strategies for Coping with Environmental Press: Relation to House-Settlement
Systems in
a Yogyakarta
Kampung, Indonesia,
Unpublished Dissertation, The University of Wisconsin. Jellinek, Lea 1998, “Jakartan Kampungs under Siege”, dalam
Freestone, R., The Twentieth Century Urban Planning Experience, Proceedings, The University of New South
Wales. Kimaryo, Jacob L. 1996, Urban Design and Space Use: a case
study of Dar es Salaam City Centre, Lund: Department of Building Functions Analysis, School of Architecture
– Lund University
Lang, Jon 1987, Creating Architectural Theory, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Rostow, W. 1971, The Stages of Economic Growth, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Siregar, A.S. 1990, Bandung-The Architecture of a City in Development: Urban Analysis of a Regional Capital as a
Contribution to the Present Debate on Indonesian Urbanity and Architectural Identity, PhD. Dissertation, Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven.
Tjondrosugianto, Parwoto 1981, Housing Arrangement for Low Income Urban Families, unpublished Master Thesis,
Institute of Social Studies – the Hague.
Trancik, R., 1986, Finding Lost Space, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
In te
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365
Ganggerbang KAMPUNG
[PART]
bingk
KOTA [THE WHOLE]
Ganggerbang Ganggerbang
KAMPUNG [PART]
KAMPUNG [PART]
KAMPUNG [PART]
Figure 2.: Part to Whole Relation
KOTA [THE WHOLE]
KAMPU NG
welfare paradigm economic
paradigm h. resource
community lost
comm. transformed
community saved evolution
paradigm conflict
paradigm acculturation
paradigm
Physical Reality
Social Reality Theory of Social Changel
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366
GATED COMMUNITY AS A SOCIAL SEGREGATION IN HOUSING ESTATE
IN MEDAN
Dwira Nirfalini Aulia
Magister Architecture of Engineering, School of Postgraduate Study, University of Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia
Abstract
The rising trend of gated community is happening in almost all over big cities in the world, include in Indonesia’s big
cities such as Medan. Gated communities are perceived to provide better security and an assurance of safety. Besides of
that, it is also a symbol of prestige and clustering the life style. It is obvious that the city planner will see a trend living in gated
community, so it is important to study the social interaction in the housing estate and neighbourhood area around the estate
include its impact to the city planning. The research is doing in two oldest housing estate in Medan city which are Taman Setia
Budi Indah and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai. Primary data will be analyze base on the back ground of gated community by
Blakely and Snyder, 2002. They said, there are three reasons of established the gated community which are : security, prestige
and life style.
Keywords: gated community, social segregation, housing estate
Introduction
The housing estate in a city is formed based by social attribute of a community. This condition happens in many cities in
developing countries which are developing quickly. Housing estate segregation can be seen as a product from imbalanced
income or ethnic which become the characteristic of community concentration in a city. For example, people with middle or lower
income will live in unorganized housing estates and people with higher income will live in an organized housing estate.
The existence of gated community in Indonesia is formed first by ethnic similarity Stoyanov, 2004 like Kampung Bali,
Kampung Arab, Kampung Cina etc. Then in early 70’s, marked by government effort to motivate private company involved in
housing is making the second type of gated community formed. However, organized housing development by developer cannot
be separated with the other housing estate. The new organized housing estate is often become exclusive among other housing
estate. Other than making social conflict between these two
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367 housing estates, the room pattern formed in Indonesia cities is a
combination that shows the organized and unorganized housing estate. Syaukat, 2005
The gated community housing is directly giving trouble to both city planner and government as the city organizer Winarso,
2005 . This research is to examine gated community housing in Medan by studying two cases of gated community housing that
has been formed earlier in Medan which are Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai. This
research report will be divided into four sections which are literature review, research methodology, analysis, and research
result ended by discussion and suggestion. Literature Review
Gated community is a closed housing area where the public room is legally privatized. Gated community limited access
is usually run by occupant association who arrange and run the rules Roitman, 2005; Thuillier, 2005; Atkinson, 2005.
Following Blakely Snyder, 1999 , the community concept is describing the intensity of general value which is expressed by
someplace by its occupants. Based by the concept above, there are three clasification category of gated community and each
category has it own different reason of community forming and the function of gate in each category Wu, 2005 . The three
categories are: 1. Lifestyle community, is a community with a collection of same
interest. The gate function is to clarify the division of general facility in the area and general facility outside the area
2. Prestige community, is a community formed as a result of social differentation. The gate function is as a sign of
environment quality 3. Security zone community, is a community formed as a
reaction of lackness of security. The gate function is more to the practcal function which is to get secure feeling.
Gated community is typically located in suburban area, even the area in the city is developing the same development
Grant Jill, 2005 and there are tendency that the community is occupied by homogenic social class which are middle or higher
social class.
Theoretically, there are three arguments on gated community which areLe Goix,2005 :
1. Gated community as a physical form and real expression from
social alteration
after industrial
revolution fragmentation, individuality and increasing community.
2. Gated community as an indication city trouble like social classification as an example
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368 3. Apearrance of eleite private community is in contradictionwith
prosperity distribution system with a result of giving assumption that public service is not efficient
Gated community background
Leisch, 2002 says that there are many things that makes gated community appears and develop rapidly in
Southeast Asia which are: Many gated community in Southeast Asia shows the
combination of socio-economic, culture and security backgrounds
In a colonial cities in Southeast Asia, residential area is always divided foloowing the ethnics which are: European
community, native population and those two are divided by Chinese population
Gated community in southeast asia can be seen as a combination of social needs, security and investment
However Grant, 2004; Atkinson Blandy, 2005 observed that why gated community is developing from the
housing profit to each city stakeholder: Housing consumer
This housing type is a reflection of critics to modern city life because lack of safeness and then popularized by public
media. Life in gated community is giving sense of identity of community that has strong attractiveness especially for the
proper people
Developer Gated community is relatively medium investment and can
increase the project value that has limited housing facility Government
Gated community is giving better tax income while the government is responsible in making public faculty that has
been supplied by developer
Gated Community characteristics
Based by Irazabal, 2006 who said that gated community characteristic is the concentration of the occupants
which divide the social difference which is important for their identity. Especially in housing area that has local public faculty for
the occupants with different lifestyles. That place is becoming a
symbol from the occupant’s social identityThat place is tend to be occupied by a community with homogenic class which are mostly
middle or higher class. Blakely Snyder, 1995 identifies gated community in America,
which are: 1. Lifestyle community. This type is first appeared created by
developers to increase people’s consumerism for recreation
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369 and comfortness. This Community group is consists by three
type: older family community retired, Golf club and recreation community and new city. New city is housing
development in large scale with a purpose to create perfect comfortable life for the occupants with comprehensive
environment facility.
2. Prestige community. This type is generally based by status and economic classes. This community is created by the
occupants itself unlike the lifestyle community. The environment facility in it is not comprehensive like the lifestyle
community. This community is consist of three types which are: community of high income and famous, community of
middle or higher income worker class and professional community or middle class. In this community, prestige and
image is an important thing. Other than that, privacy and security is considered later by occupants.
3. Security zone community. This community build fences and gate as a security mechanism. Occupants change housing
environment into gated community by closing all access and hired security officers. This type is not only occupied by
middle or higher income community but also middle or lower income community and public housing. The housing for
middle income community in suburban area and small cities changed into gated community
Gated community influence and implication for city planning
Thuillier, 2005 who did the research about gated community influence in Buenos Aires, Argentina said that the
development of gated community has important social consequences because it change distribution from social
community in city spaces and create new form from the relation between both of them.
Mc Kenzie, 2005 said that the appearance of housing management privatization is making the appearance of two
community class which are middle or higher income community and middle or lower income community.
The appearance of gated community is making a dillema for city planner because it helps to find planner objective needs in
planning housing development with higher density. But in other side, this social segregation is against the good planning principle
like: making inhabitants integration and continuity and fairness in service.
Gated community is influencing not only everyday activity pattern but also the city form and function. Landman, 2000 .
Long term snowball effect will make negative influence in city continuity in things like spatial arrangement in the same manner
as effective and functioning arrangement in city environment. Othr
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370 than that, privatization also has conflict potency between
occupants and government in managing housing area. Research Methodology
The purpose of this research is to see if gated community in Medan is making social segregation more distinct which is
happening in big cities in Indonesia and observe the implication of gated community to the development of the environment around
it. Hun, 2002. Religion, social status, culture and geographic origin are always the reason to social segregation in Indonesia.
But what is the reason of the bordering wall existence? Leisch, 2002. Research is conducted by gathering primary data and
secondary data.
Primary data is giving questionaire to both occupant of gated community and people around gated community. The
question is mainly about the condition and the situation of gated community and the influence to social interaction that happens in
the housing and people around the housing. Secondary data is data of housing area development spatially
before and after the gated community exist in that area. Secondary data is analyzed by observing gated community
existence toward area development spatially. Area Observation
Criteria for choosing the location are housing with the size of 300 head of family to observe the completion of housing
support facility and social interaction that happens inside and outside around the estate. These gated community are old
enough to observe the implication of gated community existence toward the environment area around it.
Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah
Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah is a housing area that included as the first elite housing in Medan. Perumahan
Taman Setia Budi Indah is located in Kelurahan Tanjung Rejo between Kecamatan Medan Sunggal and Medan Selayang in
Medan. Right now the Taman Setiabudi Indah area is consist by three sub area which are Taman Setiabudi Indah Area I, Taman
Setiabudi Indah Area II and Bukit Hijau Regency. This housing is developed phase by phase, which is started by phase 1 in year
1984 by opening housing area with 46 hectares wide then in 1985 it increased into 60 hectares and in 1987 the housing reach 160
hectares which is called Taman Setiabudi Indah phase I and Kawasan Eksklusif Bukit Hijau Regncy BHR. The next
development is the additional development of Taman Setiabudi Indah II 40 hectares wide. Until now the total area of Taman
Setiabudi Indah is reaching 200 hectares. Total houses built and occupied is around 3000 unit with with the total of occupant is
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371 around 15000 inhabitants. With the development of this housing,
it becomes the activity generator on Southern part of Medan WPP E and the development of other planned housing in Medan
all at onceSyaukani, 2004.
Figure 1. Taman Setia Budi Indah
Perumahan Johor Indah Permai
Perumahan Johor Indahis developed between 1982 –
1998. Development is done by 2 phase which are Johor Indah Permai I and Johor Indah Permai II. These phases of
development has been physically bordered with fences and located beside each other. However the general facilities are
used together. Facilities available are quite comprehensive like sport field, health clinic, small stores and religious building. Total
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372 of housees are 682 units with high occupation level which are
92. Near the area there are school from elementary school to the senior high school which are SD, SMP, and SMU Harapan III
which are the education facility for Medan Johor area. This estate is the first eastate being developed in Jalan Karya Jasa. After this
estate growth to the phase II, some estates are appears in Jalan Karya Jasa such as Perumahan Citra Wisata, Perumahan
Karyawan and so on.
Figure 2. Perumahan Johor Indah Permai Analysis and Research Discovery
Perumahan Johor Indah Permai
In 1985, PT. FUJI AGUNG UTAMA which move in propety becomes the developer in a housing development in
Jalan Karya Wisata area. This housing is named PERUMAHAN JOHOR INDAH PERMAI. This housing is occupying area
approximately 10.5 hectares widein first phase of development and approximately 8.6 hectares in the second phase. The total
are approximately 19.1 hectares. Total of building units are 682 units. House type consist by five types which are : Type 36, Type
45, Type 54, Type 100 and Type 120.
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373 Social interaction that happens in Johor Indah Permai complex
are mostly done periodically through: 1. Religious activity, usually once in two weeks
2. Social gathering 3. Sport usually in the early evening or holiday
4. Interaction on holiday while walking around the house
The place where the occupants dong their social activity are: 1. Mosque
2. Sport field 3. Streets
4. House 5.
Children’s playground The inhabitants in Johor Indah Permai are mostly
newcomer. This is known by survey result and data about inhabitant’s ethnics which are Malayan, Bataknese, Nias,
Minangkabau, and Javanese. But from many kinds of culture and customs, there are no problems until now. So, culture and
customs does not influence the form, room formation and the functions.
According to gated community characteristics Blakely Snyder, 1997 , then Perumahan Johor Indah Permai is included
into gated community and the type is security zone community. The majority of inhabitants answered that security is their first
criteria to choose their housing location there. The majority of inhabitants are middle income people with profession as private
industrialist and professional people. Housing security system is managed by the developer cooperated with inhabitants. Social
interaction happens periodically between occupants in the housing. Social interactions to neighboring people are quite high.
It can be seen from since the housing is developed, there are commercial area appeared in the area around it, with the result
that this housing has become activity generator in Jalan Karya Wisata area, then followed by the development of another
housing complex along Jalan Karya Wisata. Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah
Perumahan Taman Setiabudi Indah complex is the biggest housing complex with 1425 units of house in Medan
Selayang area. With entrance access from Setia Budi Street, which are one of the main street in area WPP E Medan, which
makes the occupation level in this housing complex is quite high compared to other housing complex.
In field observation, social interaction activity happens mostly on open area in the housing complex. Activities happens
mostly in the early evening when the occupants arrived from workplace or school
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374 The most crowded activity centres are
Sport field Marketplace
Playground Entrance access of the housing complex
Social interactions which are done periodically by housing inhabitants are:
Once a week Tai Chi on Sunday morning Qur’an recital once a month in each housing location
Social gathering in a smaller inhabitant’s housing community each block
According to the gated community characteristics Blakely Snyder, 1997 , Perumahan Taman Setiabudi Indah is a
gated community with combination of prestige community and security zone community. In the core of the complex is built house
clusters Perumahan Bukit Hijau which is fenced and gated as a sign of prestige community. The inhabitants in this housing is not
quite interacted with the with the community around them but the existence of this housing open a work field to people around by
working as household helper. Social segregation between Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah with people around it is
clearly visible.
The existence of this housing toward the environment around is giving positive implication. This can be seen by the
development of other housing in Medan Selayang area, Setia Budi road expansion, and completion of ring roadway in Medan.
n
ah ate
ah
Figure 3. Frequency of social interaction Figure 4. Relative in housing estate
Analyzing primary data by compared between these two housing estates, the result shows that relationship in the
neighborhood is more closely in Perumahan Johor Indah Permai. 55.5 of the resident are periodically doing activities together
such as : sports, Qur’an recital and arisan. In Taman Setia Budi Indah, resident’s background are from higher income level, so
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375 that the social interaction are less closely. The pull factor of the
resident choose their neighborhood is the relative who stay in the estate. The result shows that 32.1 of the Perumahan Johor
Indah resident choose to stay in the estate because of a lot of relative also stay there.
Research Discovery
From the research output we can summarize the discovery related with social segregation that happens:
Although the fence and gate looks intimidating, in gated community however, outsider is not prevented to pass the
gate. Even the facility in the complex can be used by outsiders as long as the housing manager can control the
security. This policy attracts people to live in gated community Grant, 2004 .
Social interaction in gated community is well enough between inhabitants. This happens when there are activities that
connect them like social gathering, religious gathering and sport activity.
Segregation that happens between community and people outside community around them will not make horizontal
conflict as long as each side can used each other existence. This condition also happens in Syaukat, 2005 research in
Perumahan Taman Yasmin in Bogor city
Organizing gated community housing area with the owned facility has its own life space apart from the community
around it and giving their own impact toward internal structure of the area. But the impact doesn’t have negative social effect
as long as the gated community supporting facility still can be used by people around and does not prevent the facility
usage exclusively.
Gated community implications toward the development of the area around it are:
Gated community has implication to transportation network inside the housing complex because of transportation
network management responsibility transfer from city government to housing management developer. It needs
government response from government toward the development of gated community housing visually. Response
by giving KASIBA Kawasan Siap Bangun and LISIBA Lingkungan Siap Bangun are one of the positive action from
government
Gated community can provide more space for people by creating a compact form of a city. This condition is based by
concept of multi function design in a housing area
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376 A great design orientation, green open area quality design
which is used in gated community could become good implication toward city room formation around
Gated community is influencing not only everyday activity pattern but also city form and function
Discussion and suggestion
According to Williams, 2005 , there are three factors that influencing social interaction in a housing area. The first one
is personal factors include personality, personal dynamic, and behavior influenced by human background. In gated community,
homogenic occupant’s background will make the social interaction in the housing area is high but for social interaction
toward people outside the housing area is not positive depending from what kind of social interaction is happening and the
differences of personal factor is happening. The second one is social informal factors which include relation between one
individual to another individual or community and sources that enables for an individual to inflence their social interaction with
others example: financial source, time source and health source. Social interaction that happens between Perumahan
Taman Setia Budi Indah which make a work field opportunity for people around it and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai which make
commercial and trade activity to the people around it developed. The third one is social formal consist by organization and
structural policy decission making process, social structures and organization activity. The existence of Perumahan Taman Setia
Budi Indah and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai is making positive growth and development of city zone especially in Medan
Selayang and Medan Johor area. Area development is then followed by inhabitants growth, increase of economic activity in
related area. This development is influencing the city management and policy maker to develop this area into new
settlements area.
From the discussion above, social segregation that is happening in gated community is not always making a negative
implication toward the concept of ideal city planning. But the differences and segregation that happens can combine well if it
can be manage positively. However in one side privatization has potential to create and strengthen the responsibility distributionof
of
general facility
and housing
infrastructure managementbetween occupants and local government especially
in managing housing supporting facility so that this condition needs special rule from local government.
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377
References Atkinson, Rowland; Blandy ,Sarah 2005 Introduction :
International perspectives on the new enclaves and the rise of gated community, Housing Studies, 20 2 :177 -
186 . Blakely E.J Snyder 2002,
“Fortress America – Gated Communities in the United States”, 2 nd edition, Brooking
Institution Press, Washington. Grant, Jill 2002 Mixed use in theory and practice, Canadian
experience with implementing a planning principle, Journal of the American Planning Association,
68 1 : 71 - 84
Grant, Jill 2004 The planning and policy implications of gated
community, Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 13:1 : 70
– 88. Grant, Jill 2005 Planning Responses to Gated Communities in
Canada, Housing Studies, 202 : 273
– 285. Hun, Kim Jee 2002 Research Notes on the making of gated
community : a study of an inner city neighbourhood, Jakarta Indonesia, AJSS, 30:1 : 97
– 108. Irazabal, Clara 2006 Localizing urban design traditions : gated
and edge cities in Curitiba, Journal of Urban Design 11 1 : 73
– 96. Landman, Karina 2000 Gated communities and urban
sustainability : taking a closer look at the future, Proceedings
Strategies for
a sustainable
built environment, Pretoria, 23
– 25 August 2000. Le Goix, Renaud 2005 Gated Communities : Sprawl and social
segregation in Southern California, Housing Studies, 20 2 : 323
– 343. Leisch ,Harald 2002, Gated Communities in Indonesia, Cities,
195 : 341-350.
Mc Kenzie, Evan 2005 Constructing the Pomerium in Las vegas : A case study of emerging trends in American gated
community, Housing Studies, 202 : 187
– 203. Roitman, Sonia 2005 Who segregates whom ? The analysis of a
Gated Community in Mendoza, Argentina, Housing Studies,
20 2 : 303 – 321.
Syaukani, Achmad 2004, Kajian Pengaruh Permukiman Housing Estate terhadap tingkat pelayanan jalan, Studi
Kasus : Perumahan Taman Setiabudi Indah Medan, Tesis Program Pasca Sarjana Universitas Sumatera Utara.
Syaukat 2005 , Masyarakat Tergerbang, Kajian Pengembangan Perkotaan Program Pascasarjana Universitas Indonesia.
Thuillier, Guy 2005 Gated Communities in the metropolitan area of Buenos Aires, Argentina : A challenge for town
planning, Housing Studies, 20 2 : 255
– 271.
and Manifestation, Medan, 13
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378 Williams, Jo 2005 Designing neighbourhoods for social
interaction : the case of cohousing, Journal of Urban Design,
10 2 : 195 – 227
Winarso, Haryo 2005 City for the rich, paper presented at the 8
th
International Conference of the Asian Planning Schools Association 11
– 14
th
September 2005, Penang Malaysia Wu, Fulong 2005 Rediscovering the ‘Gate’ under market
transition : from work-unit compounds to commodity housing enclaves, Housing Studies, 2 2 : 235-254.
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379
TRADITIONAL FORT OF KERATON YOGYAKARTA AND SACRED AXIS
INFLUENCED SOCIAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN COLONIAL
AND MODERN PERIOD
Gerarda Orbita Ida Cahyandari
Department of Architecture, Engineering Faculty, Atma Jaya Yogyakarta University Corresponding authors: idachmail.uajy.ac.id
Abstract
Keraton Yogyakarta had its owned teritory inside the fortification. North and South axis is the sacred axis for the
Javanese people. These aspects influeced development of the city. Social and cultural developments took place inside and
outside the fort according to periods of city development. There were four periods of city development i.e. tradisional period,
Indische period, colonial period, and modern period. Each period had its civilization characteristics. Javanese, Dutch, and Chinese
held cultural background in the city. Intepretive-historical method tries to explore that there were zone territories reflected from
building appearance in the peripheries of the fort to accomodate socio-political aspects in every period.
Meaning and identity in the core of Place Theory could be found in the historical precedent of the peripheries. Intra and extra
muros paths had position as structural form linkage theory to show development pattern by using functional categories,
periods, and symbolic expressions. Functional categories are spiritual force, temporal power, and economic energy.
Historic precedent is used to assume building function and establishment. Historic precedent could also be accompanied
by contextual phenomenon to support quantitative data. Location and building function in the peripheries are analyzed based on
field study and maps in 1900 and 1925. The 25-year duration is determined by historic precedent of building architectural
character in every group year.
Traditional pattern of urban structure, axial organic, and compositional form, had role to form urban development pattern.
Social and cultural acculturation is happened in the area around traditional territory i.e. the fort. Acculturation between Javanese-
Colonial and Chinese-Colonial functioned as political approach by using build environment to less the power of fort and sacred axis.
Social and political influence could be seen in different category
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380 between field data and map study. The differences are used to
indicate culture acculturation of Colonial, Chinese, and Javanese. Keywords: acculturation, city developments, fortification, sacred
axis, socio-political aspects.
INTRODUCTION
Yogyakarta is traditional and noble city. It has cosmological and sacred axis, complete the presence of energy
in the traditional city. The fort and the axis formed the territory to enclose Sultan authority. The specific character of Yogyakarta in
colonial period was powerful existance of Kraton palace to control urban space dan community, but in the same way
controlled by colonial power.
1
Kraton is centre of the axis and center of Sultan’s power. Sultan had a very important position. The fort bordered the first city of
Yogyakarta. Sultan had authority inside and outside fort intra and extra muros.
Districts at edges of the fort were affected by sacred axis. The fort and the authority could form social and political
responsive by means of building simbolic expression. Socio- political transformation in community settlement was designated
with building appearance in accommodating activity and symbolic communication.
Building appearance could indicate sosio-cultural influence and acculturation, more over socio-political policy in the
community at that time. Research area was in the periphery of Kraton fort.
Buildings data were represented by their exterior expression of multicultural element in Javanese, Dutch, Chinese, and Islamic in
the period 17- 20 centuries. This research implemented historic- interpretive method by means of building mapping dan visual
documentation. Interpretation of the objects compared with historical data and moments of importance.
The result of analisys can be part of recommendation and consideration to urban design and urban planning policy in
conserving local value and history.
1
Surjomihardjo 2000, p.11. Yogyakarta menarik untuk dikaji, karena dalam perkembangannya, kota ini pada mulanya merupakan kota kraton di pedalaman
yang diawasi pemerintah kolonial sehingga dua kekuatan kepentingan, yaitu kekuatan tradisional dan kekuatan kolonial, bertemu di dalamnya. Kurun waktu
yang dipilih, masa akhir abad ke-19 sampai awal abad ke-20, berkaitan erat dengan proses “pasifikasi Hindia Belanda” dan makin mendalaminya pengaruh
politik dan ekonomi kolonial ke daerah pedalaman di Jawa. Suatu proses yang menimbulkan perubahan dan pembauran.
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381
THE SACRED AXIS AND THE TRADITIONAL FORT
Sacred axis of Yogyakarta connected the major points in Javanese cosmology. Axis between north and south, had points
of meaning at Merapi-Tugu Pal Putih-Kraton-Panggung Krapyak- Laut Selatan. This sacred axis holds the centre of reference for
urban design since traditional era until now.
Inside and outside paths of the fort passed through gates called plengkung. According to historic documentation, there were
5 plengkungs at the fort, namely plengkung Wijilan, Plengkung Ngasem, Plengkung Joyoboyo, Plengkung Tamansari, Plengkung
Gading, dan plengkung Gondomanan. But now there are only 4 plengkung, yaitu Wijilan, Ngasem, Tamansari, dan Gading. The
plengkung could have important position as origin and destination related to urban development. The traditional territory was defined
by the palace, the plengkungs, and the fortification.
Plengkung Wijilan
Plengkung Gondomanan Plengkung Tamansari
Plengkung Ngasem
Plengkung Gading Dutch housing
Dutch housing Vredeburg
Loji Besar Market
Loji Kebon Church
Photo 1. Map of Kraton Fortification
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382
THE INFLUENCES IN CITY DEVELOPMENT AND ARCHITECTURE
It seems to be rather difficult to discover some order in the theoretical perspectives used in Indonesian urban studies.
2
Town have definitions, i.e.: 1. the town as a man-made material environment
2. a centre of production 3. a social community
4. a cultural community 5. a controlled society
The town can be defined in the first place as man-made material environment. This formulation directs the analysis to the
morpholocial aspect and covers the architectonic, spatial and environmental ordering in relation to the socio-economic and
cultural backgrounds. The town can also be defined as a centre of production. This opens a broad perpective on the organization of
production on the one hand and regional and international relations on the other hand. The definition of the town as social
community is rooted in a systems approach. It can be in functionalism or conflict theory. The perspective of the town as a
cultural community directs attention to the way people manage to carry on in the town, their perception of the urban environment,
their ways of living, subcultures, acculturation of various cultures and the structure of cognitive systems. The town is managed by a
system of local authorities.
Definition of town can be understood as an approach to analyze acculturation process. It is important to understand four
development in Indonesia cities, i.e.: 1. early Indonesian town
2. Indische town 3. colonial town
4. modern town
In The Image of the City, urban character can be analyzed in three factors, i.e. Identity, Structure,and Meaning.
Indonesia cities had mainly similar figure with composition of palace, square, market, port, and fort. Traditional town had
structure based on cosmological and socio-cultural background. The figures of noble city were circular compotition with hierarchy
from centre to periphery. Indische town was the first influenced town of colonial authority in Indonesia. Modern town had
transitional process from western modernisme to independence condition.
2
Nas 1986, p.14
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383 Space itself can assume strongly marked attributes.
3
Urban space can be defined by means of building relation, scale, space geometry, and building characters. Location, function, and
period of building expression can be considered to find socio- political influence in building development at fort perphery. In the
colonial period, there were social stratification that dominantly influenced cultural background, namely: Javanese Moslem,
Dutch, and Chinese.
Chinese Influence
Chinese living district is called Pecinan or China Town. Chinese had history in relation to Javanese noble, Sultan
Hamengkubuwana I. One of His soldiers was Tan Jin Sing, with his honourable mention as Secodiningrat. Secodinigrat Dalem
was demolished and turn to Bank Indonesia. Chinese influence expanded with the origins in north and south of Kraton. Rumah
toko or shop houses were the perfect solution to accommodate economic and domestic aspect. They expressed acculturation
process with building, function, and personality.
Chinese architecture adapted with tropical architecture. The results of adaptation were high ceilings, ventilations,
openings, high gable walls and long roof to reduce radiation and glare. The weight of the roof, with its projecting eaves, is
transferred to the wall by sets of wooden brackets. The houses had narrow width and long in longitudinal axis. There was a
terrace in the two-story façade. Simple façade was related to function of house and comercial. This condition was different to
the luxorious style of KLenteng in detail and colour. The first location was in the eastern side of the fort, where klentheng was.
Dutch shop houses were similar to Chinese shop houses in their steep roof.
Islam Influence
As a part of Mataram Islam in the last period, Kraton Yogyakarta had employee to serve religious division, called
kepenguluan. They lived near Masjid Agung, an area provided by Sultan Hamengku Buwono I. This place then was called
pakauman or qoimuddin or kauman.
Kauman had wide area, bordered by Kraton and colonial complex. The paths in the district are very close and secured with
1 meter wide connecting houses. Social interrelation was strongly close and maintains the solidity in the same background of
Moslem society.
3
Design of Cities, p.17
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384 Islamic architecture came to Indonesia in 14-15 centuries
with adaptability to the last condition. There were characteristic in the firstly period of Islam, namely tumpang roof imposed roof,
splitted gate, gate with door frame, clay material figures on top of the roof. There was even ornament of two splitted wings in the
gate.
Islamic ornament never used animal or living symbol. Khaligrafic carving took place at walls inside and outside house,
dome, and ceilings. Plant ornament emphasized to estetic function. Geometric form was used in polygonal repetition, like
stars, circle, etc. Colonial Influence
The Kota Yogyakarta 1880-1930: Sejarah Perkembangan Sosial was explained that aristocratic people of Yogyakarta
conceived adaptability process to colonial situation. In this process, cultural contact was happened between traditional
power and colonial power. Colonial condition was included:
1. People were involved in economic and political domination by foreign minority.
2. Foreign minority was possibly had control over bumiputera majority.
3. Industrial civilization had contact and conflict to pre-industrial society.
4. Difficult situation between two civilizations made the subservient role to which the colonial people are subjected as
instruments of the colonial power.
4
Urban space became a responsible space for interaction, development, and stressing another status.
Urban planning in colonial period reflected Nederland cities in 16-17 centuries. Old cities of Nederland were located with
fort and moat, connected outside by gates. There were four functions, namely spiritual force, temporal power, and economic
energ y, and symbolic expression. Religious building, nobleman’s
palace, market, and square were typology of building that forming the urban space.
Housing in colonial cities in 17-18 century are similar to Dutch building. The characteristics are:
Long houses narrow 20 m width 110 m long
steep roof façade with two level
few openings for ventilation
4
Ibid, p.2
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385 roof in long form and big in steep roof close to Chinese
buildings Indisch style developed later. This house had wide yard. It was
usually owned by dutch who married Indonesian woman. In the 19 century, there was evocation to appreciate local
architecture. Building design adapted to local style with permanently using Europe style. Hindian influences were
Indonesia and Cina. There are verandah and parallel rooms next to each other. Shop houses with verandah reflected acculturation
between Chinese, Dutch, and Indonesian architecture. Policy of elimination Rodi in 1870 evoked establishment of private
bureau and business. With the process of storing, production, and distribution, there were new types of buildings to facilitate new
needs.
In 1920-1930, there were combination of local architecture and modern principles of architecture. In these years
colonial housing had new expression with single house, one story house, with clay as roof material, plastered walls, and jati window.
This house was constructed on the plinth of stone. The second type was two stories building with garage and pavilion.
HISTORIC INTERPRETIVE
Fort in the Palace Periphery was as border of authority teritory. It determined urban identity in Indische and Colonial
periods. Intra and extra muros had role in structuring identity and meaning.
Fort had east, west, north, and south side. Plengkungs were principle points to define the mapping of buildings.
Plengkungs is the identity of a district. The analisys was also starting from these points. Network of circulation in the means of
paths, inside and outside the fort, were indication of urban development direction with reference to the sacred axis and
plengkungs.
Historic precedence was used to assume building functions and year of establishment. The categorial data also
considered contextual phenomenon when buildings were constructed, for instance Muhammadiyah movement and political
situation.
Building characters were grouping in every 25 years period. Archives of building establishment supported the definition
of year and building characters. Field observation also helped configuration of data, for instance information by interview or year
establishment carved at the wall. Historic maps of Yogyakarta could be traced to compare the existence of buildings.
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386 Table 1. Year Periodically Assumption of Building Appearace and
Function Berjajar
min. 3 rumah
Satu rumah 1850-1875
Traditional Period
House: steep and long roof
colonial building similar to Chinese building
narrow width about 20 m and long in longitudinal axis
façade with two level front terrace, few openings
1875-1900 Indische
Period House:
large house with wide yard Alternative function: education,
church
1900-1925 Colonial
Period House:
Hindian style, with Europe and Chinese elements
Open terrace Alternative function: government,
shophouses
1925 Modern
Period House:
One story house: simple, stone basement or platform
Two stories: added with garage and pavilion
Alternative function: government, culture, Islamic style
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387
Figure 1. Sacred Axis Javanese-Colonial
Chinese-Colonial
Javanese-Islamic
Data and analisys explained that: 1. Acculturation predominantly went on periphery attach directly
to the fort. Although there were extra muros paths parallel to the fort, acculturation did not directly open in the building
appearance. 2. There were efforts for emerging building characters in
precious period. Building character in 1900 emerged in modern period 1900.
3. Javanese and colonial acculturation is in south, west, and north of the fort and in the Islamic area. The periode of
emerging was 1925. Chinese and colonial acculturation is in east, west, and north of the fort. The periode of emerging
were 1900-1925 dan 1925.
Urban development had structural periods, namely traditional city, indische city, colonial city, and modern city.
Traditional city had palace as centre and fort as border of territory. Indische city indicated Chinese district development with
commercial function, spiritual force, and housing. Otherwise, there was colonial district with spiritual force dan temporal force
function. Temporal function was related to governmental authority. In colonial city, there were spiritual force, economic
energy, and housing and Chinese district. Modern city had colonial district with economic energy and housing and Muslim
district.
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388
Colonial district and chinese district Indische city. Function:
temporal force, economic energy Chinese district
Indische city Function: spiritual
force, economic energy
Distrik Muslim bagian dari kota Kolonial. Peran : spiritual force, pemukiman
Colonial district Indische city. Function:
temporal force, spiritual force
Colonial district Indische city
Function: temporal force Colonial district colonial city.
Function: spiritual force, economic energy
Colonial district modern city
Function: economic energy, housing
Kraton
Traditional Traditional
Traditional Traditional
Traditional Tradisional
Colonial district Modern city
Function: economic energy, housing
Colonial district Modern city
Function: economic energy, housing
Colonial district Modern city.
Function: economic energy, housing
Colonial district Modern city
Function: economic energy, housing
Colonial district Modern city Function: economic energy,
housing Colonial district and urban
kampong Modern city. Function: economic energy,
housing Traditional
Figure 2. Mapping of Location and Function
Indische city was previously process to colonial city, so that development of spiritual and economic function encreased.
Building periods indicated development of building starting from the east-west axis with Chinese district shophouses to east side
of the fort. So there was a imagenary axis to interfere power of the sacred axis.
CONCLUSION
Colonial goverment confined Chinese district and Islamic district. Chinese district was adaptable with its economic function.
Islamic district was religious basic and emerged in modern city. Socio-cultural acculturation and socio-political influence
went on area that close to radiiotnal territory. Javanese-colonial and Chinese-colonial acculturation proved socio-political influence
in socio-cultural elements. The acculturation is a policy to reduce power of the sacred axis and power of the fort.
REFERENCES
----------,Karaton Ngayogyakarta, Yogyakarta Potensi Wisata. Broadbent, Geoffrey. 1980. Design in Architecture. Surrey,
England: John Wiley Sons Ltd.
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389 Groat, Linda, David Wang. 2002. Architectural Research
Methods. New York: John wiley Sons, Inc. Halim, Deddy. 2005. Psikologi Arsitektur. Jakarta: Grasindo.
Hamilton, Peter Penyunting. 1989 The Symbolic Construction of Community. New York: Routledge.
Lynch, Kevin. 1992. The Image of the City. Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Mann, A.T. 1993. Sacred Architecture. Brisbane: Element. Mann, Richard. 1998. The Old City of Jakarta
– Today. Jakarta: Gateway Books.
Markus, T.A., P.Whyman, J.Morgan, D.Whitton, T.Maver, D.canter, J.Flemimg. 1972. Building Performance.
London: Applied Science Publishers Ltd. Nas, Peter J.M. 1986.
The Indonesian City “Studies in Urban Development and Planning”. Dordrecht, Holland: Foris
Publications. Rivai, M.A. 1995. Pegangan Gaya Penulisan, Penyuntingan,
dan Penerbitan Karya Ilmiah Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.
Sadilah, Emiliana et al. 19911992. Kesadaran Budaya tentang Ruang pada Masyarakat di DIY Suatu Studi mengenai
Proses Adaptasi Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Dir.Jen. Kebudayaan
Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional, Proyek Inventarisasi dan Pembinaan Nilai-nilai Budaya.
Sumalyo, Yulianto. 1995. Arsitektur Kolonial Belanda di Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.
Surjomihardjo, Abdurrachman. April 2000. Kota Yogyakarta 1880-1930: Sejarah Perkembangan Sosial. Yogyakarta:
Yayasan untuk Indonesia. Suryabrata, Sumadi. 1983. Metodologi Penelitian. Jakarta: CV.
Rajawali. Tjahjono, Gunawan Penyusun. 1999. Indonesian Heritage:
Arsitektur. Singapore: Periplus. Trancik, Roger. 1986. Finding Lost Space. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company. Triple A. Dinas Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata DIY.
Tugas Perkembangan Arsitektur 1. Semester Genap 20042005. Fakultas Teknik-UAJY
Utaberta, Nangkula. 16-17 Juni 2004.Konsep Arsitektur Islam dan
Perumahan Islam
dari Perspektif
Sunnah. Symposium Nasional Arsitektur Islam, Universitas
Muhammadiyah Surakarta.
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390
UNDERSTANDING THE DUALISM IN CITY PLANNING
1
Laksmi Gondokusumo Siregar
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia
e-mail : laksmisiregaryahoo.com
Abstract
Human being has two sides giving them the possibility to live, namely spirit and physical or soul and body. Starting from the
issue of these two sides of life, this paper will discuss the relationship as far as the human life exists, starting from the
understanding that human existence as living creature is different from other living creatures. Therefore in discussing about city
arrangement, it is better to start from the issues of human with their lives. According to Merleu-Ponty, human arises as a
particular organization possessing two unsure inside, namely spiritual unsure and physical unsure. Therefore, human does not
lives merely on hisher pyhsical, but they live because of their spirit, too. These two sides of human life always go side by side in
undergoing human life. If the two are not in balance, there will be possibility that human life will not run according to what is
expected. In other words, the two have to run in harmony, so that they will guide human being into healthy life, body and soul.
Key words: human, spirit, manifestation, symbol, urban Preliminary
The streamline of human life is the factor of the arising of things around human life and able to support their life. Various
things around us are the manifestation of our lives, such as buildings made by human for conducting better life. Clusters of
buildings will from cities, which becomes the social life of human.
City planning can express, in non verbal language, the characteristics of its citizens. Because of the communication
power showed by the city planning, arranging a city has to be followed by deep understanding of human life.
Human, in hisher lives, need many supports which will enhance their existence. Besides human visible physical, human also
consists of soul, which also needs fulfillment. Both of these
1
Presented in International Seminar. The Knowledge City. Spirit, Character and Manifestation. November 13-14, 2007. Department of Architecture University of
Sumatera Utara. Medan
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391 matters cannot be separated one from another because of the
unique relationship between human soul and body. Starting from this thought, therefore in city planning, we have to possess
understanding background about the entire human life. Not merely about human to give concern to human physically, but
also from the spiritual side. Therefore, to fulfill human needs entirely, in city arrangementcity planning, it is not enough to
create buildings or open spaces which can be enjoyed just physically, but spiritually, the city planning has to be able to give
enjoymenthappiness for the society.
Related to the two matters which have to be fulfilled, therefore development for the interest of citizens to live socially
have to be able to cover all human needs, both physical and spiritual body and soul. Development with thoroughly need-
fulfillment can be said as human development. The Meaning of Dualism
Dualism is a philosophycal view emphasizing the existence of two integral fields worlds, can not be reduced and
unique.
2
The examples of supranatural-natural, spiritual-material, soul-body, visible world
– invisible world, actual reality – probability reality.
The oldest metaphysical dualism is Plato’s dualism. The truely existence was merely ideas. Eventhough, he admitted the
existence of lower principles but opposite to ideas. Plato’s dualism was also ethical as far as he identified the goodness of
ideas and crimes with the lower principles. The characteristics of human being is multidimensional,
human being is consisted of soul-body-spirit. It is important for us that human being is bi-dimensional creature. In human being,
there are two dimensions : spirit and matterial.
3
Human being is a united singleness but in that unity, there is duality : spirit and
material. Spiritual and material cannot be reduced one to another. Although they are contradict between one and another, but they
cannot be separated and cannot unbound one to another. Spiritual and material in human being are two realities. Dualism
views determinism and human freedom as two realities which are strange one to another.
Determinism is valid for human being physically, whereas freedom is valid for human being spiritually. These two realities
which are strange one to another but they have to go along together. According to Merleu-Ponty, a French phylosopher,
2
Bagus, Lorens 1996. Kamus Filsafat Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Jakarta P 174-175
3
Snijders, Adelbert OFM Cap. 2004. Antropologi Filsafat Manusia. Paradoks dan Seruan. Kanisius Yogyakarta P 105- 110
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392 human being arises as an organization which consists of psycho
and physical unsure, subjective and objective, internal and eksternal.
4
Referred to various opinions about the meaning of dualims, it will be the material for the complementary in the following
explanation, which is related with the planning of a city. City Planning
Human efforts to place their activities in a certain protected place is by building places, so that human being can
conduct their activities well protected and quiet. The protected place, so far, is called as the realization of human being, named :
architecture. Architecture gives many chances for human to self- actualization. It gives particular meaning for human life.
Human being in their ways of life owns natural characteristis, namely live in group and society. With these characteristics,
human build their living space and in group to form something called city.
City is the compound of buildings, roads, places of activities, settlements, recreational places and meeting places.
5
Basically, city is the total sum of places consisted of public space, economical spaces, and theater, church, landmark and houses.
6
Urban design is the combination between city planning, architecture, landscape, civil engineering and transportation.
Urban design refers more to physical city. Urban design can create itself into visible formfacade buildings, design of a road,
and a realization of an urban area. The product of city design is categorized into general form namely urban space and natural
space. Urban space is formed by the face of building with the floor of city namely road, plaza, or other open spaces.
7
Whereas, natural space as a space represents nature inside and the surrounding of city.
Being realized or not, in human language of space, we can always find the reflection of our will as human. Basically we have
particular sense of space and the way we use the space. In their need of space, human has three important things, namely
stimulation, security, and identity.
8
They will be explained briefly as: a. Stimulation is the real and simple part of these three factors
to be understood. But this factor is more basic and less glamorous then we used to be. The extreme form is boredom,
4
Merleau –Ponty, dalam Brouwer, MAW.1988. Alam Manusia dalam
Fenomenologi. Gramedia. Jakarta
5
Spreiregen, Paul D 1965. Urban Design : The Architecture of Town and Cities. McGraw Hill. P 106
6
Gruen, Victor. 1964. The Heart of Our Cities . Simon and Schuster Inc, NY
7
Budiardjo, Eko. 1999. Kota Berkelanjutan . Bandung P 61
8
Adrey, Robert, in Lawson, Bryan. 2003. The Language of Space. Architectural Press. Amsterdam, NY, London, Sidney. P 18-39
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393 not only is about something faded but very dangerous. The
experience of the lack of stimulation will continue, so that, it will erradicate the subject from receiving information of from
outer world.
b. Security; we all have the very basic need in the stability degree, continuity and predictable life. It may be sound
interesting for not possessing such things, but try to imagine how depressing it would be for undergoing life which always
changes and cannot be predicted. We are dependent to our sanity in knowing about the regulations. Two most depressing
things are moving home and holiday.
c. Identity is one of the important and basic things in the spirit of human being. It is important to create and nurture identity.
According to Krier, urban space is all spaces lie in between or out of buildings in urban areas. Urban space has to
be differentiated from certain prominent characteristic, in the quality of detail management and activity in it. An urban space is
ideally surrounded by walls, floors, and has strict meaning to serve citizens. Buildings can form its surrounding space so that
landmark and node can be formed.
9
Some theories of urban design are : a. Figure ground theory,
10
is based on a main components namely solid figure namely blocks of the buildings mass and
voids. They are the out space which are formed between the blocks.
b. Linkage theory
11
. Linkage is the most successful glue in writing the urban form where the building masses which
speak in the lingkage will form articulation. c. Place theory, is the combination of the two prior theories. This
theory emphasizes the cultural and historical factors. This theory gives the local shapes according to the potential of
the society so that the socio-cultural values can be accepted. All of the theories above have to be concerned integrally
in the urban area planning, because those three theories are the same importance. The ideology forms urban design, among
others are
12
: 1. Concern to urban aesthetic arrangement. Rome is the
example of using this ideology, with Piazza Saint Peters as its open space.
2. Concern to social environment. This ideology is developed. 3. Ideal urban social environment which is expressed through
ideal physical environment.
9
Krier, Rob 1979. Urban Space. NY P 15
10
Trancik, Roger. 1986. Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co N Y. P 104-108
11
Maki.Fumihiko 1964. Investigation in Collective Form. St Louis P 29
12
Budiardjo, Eko. 1999. Kota yang Berkelanjutan.Bandung P 71
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394 There are three physical environment influence for human,
namely
13
: 1. Environmental determinism; that physical environment
influences the perception and human behavior. 2. Environmental possibilism; that physical environment can
give chancetreshold towards human behavior. 3. Environmental probabilism; that physical environment gives
choices which are different for human behavior. Those are various thoughts about city planning. They will
give further and deeper views for us to understand about certain city planning. More than other dimensions which has to be
concerned in city planning, social dimension grows as the main attention in the efforts to understand life values. Thus, it is time for
the process of city planning to involve experts in social fields, such as anthropologist, sociologist, psychologist, so that city
planning will not emphazise on merely physical issues.
14
Discussion
In giving base to a city planning, it has to be realized that dualism in the realization of media formation for human life.
Dualism has to be the starting point of city planning arrangement. Therefore, the work of city design can be done entirely, serving
the body and soul of human. Likewise dualism which is materialphysical and soulspirit. Two
unseparable things, therefore the planning of a city can be done thoroughly and human.
The definition of human according to http:www.m-w.com is : a. Function shows complementary verb
1. To represent human, to show the characteristic of human, to adjust with human characteristics.
2. To become more human b. Function shows nouns :
1. Refer to humanity 2. Doctrine, attitude, way of life according to human interest
and value,
particularly philosophy
refuses supernaturalism and emphasizes on pride, value and
somebody’s capacity to actualize himherself. The fulfillment of spiritual human need will lead to
13
Rapoport, Amos 1980. Human Aspect of Urban Form : Towards a Man Environment Approach to Urban Form and Design Oxford P 34
14
Siregar, L Gondokusumo 2005. Penyediaan Ruang Publik yang Me”Manusiawi”kan Kehidupan Kota. Proceeding Seminar Nasional : Peran
Ruang Publik Dalam Pengembangan Sektor Properti dan Kota. Jurusan Arsitektur Fakultas Teknik Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang 2005
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395 something more human in the city planning arrangement. The
level of education which is still far from adequate for a developed country like Indonesia, has to become the main priority in
developing the city planning. Therefore, it is an important duty of local government as the decision maker in the arrangement of city
planning. Local government has to fully realize that understanding dualism is very important for fulfilling the needs of
the citizens, and it has to be done consistently. By conducting a city based on the dualism above, where they have to go in
harmony, thus this will influence the characteristic of the citizens and thoroughly the characteristic of a city will be more human. It
is caused by the balance condition between physical and spiritual body and soul. Balance for human life is very important,
because if we emphasize only on physical in the city planning, there will be emptiness for the spiritual of the city, likewise
citizens who lack of spiritual fulfillment. Many of Citizens in Indonesia do not realize yet the importance of their spiritual
fulfillment. It is caused by the low level of knowledge and education. Because of this thought, it is something proper for the
officers doing the city planning to understand and apply the human spiritual sides in general.
Conclusion
From the previous discussion, it can be concluded that giving base on the complete understanding about human life is
important in city planning . Human physical life, which is two-sided and always go together,
has been clearly discussed.
Dualism in the human is something unreducable. One with another cannot go by itself, but the two have to go together.
Something which is not realized in their lives, human needs both of them to exist in himherself.
This can be the basic that the arrangement of city planning is a human place of the citizens, to live, to exist, and to self-actualize,
well and entirely. Therefore, city planning which is planned to serve the citizens,
and it is an obligation to be based on the fulfillment of psychological and physical needs of human being.
References 1. Bagus, Lorens. 1996. Kamus Filsafat. Gramedia Pustaka
Utama Jakarta 2. Brouwer MAW. 1998.Alam Manusia dalam Fenomenologi.
Gramedia Jakarta 3. Budihardjo, Eko. 1999. Kota Berkelanjutan.. Alumni Bandung
4. Gruen, Victor. 1964. The heart of Our Cities. Simon Schuster Inc N Y
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396 5. Maki.Fumihiko 1964. Investigation in Collective Form.
Washington University Publications. St Louis 6. Krier, Rob 1979. Urban Space. Rizzoli Int. N Y
7. Lawson, Bryan. 1999. The Language of Space.Architectural Press. Amsterdam, London, N Y, Sydney.
8. Rapoport, Amos. 1980. Human Aspect of Urban Form : Towards a Man Environment Approach to Urban Form and
Design. Pergamon Press, Oxford 9. Snijders, Adelbert 2003. Antropologi Manusia, Paradoks dan
Seruan Kanisius Yogyakarta 10. Spreiregen, Paul D 1965. Urban Design ; The Architecture of
Town and Cities Mc Graw Hill 11. Trancik, Roger 1986.Finding Lost Space; Theories of Urban
Design Van Norstrand Reinhold. N Y
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397
DESIGN AS AN INSTRUMENT TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY LIFE OF THE POOR:
ISSUES FOR RESEARCH
Suparti Amir Salim
Doctor in Architecture, School of Architecture, Planning and Policy Development, Institute Technology Bandung, Indonesia
buparbdg.centrin.net.id
Abstract
The paper describes three key issues: urbanization, Informal Sector and Settlement, and the Role of Architects that
considered important to be discussed to put design as an instrument for creating inclusive society. There area several
challenges and need to be fulfilled to strengthen the position and the role of architect and design in social transformation needs. It
needs urban development institution based on the principles of good governance, sufficient knowledge on the problems and
issues regarding the provision of urban places for the poor and the vulnerable, their need and their social characteristics, the
architect ability to negotiate development for the interest of all. Both urbanization and dualistic characters of urban spaces raised
issues regarding inclusive society and how the architects, urban planner and designer can have significant roles in urban social
transformation. But not only the designer institution have to be strengthen but also the perception of other development actors
regarding design have to be changed. They should put design as socially responsible activity
Keywords: informal
sector, kampong
improvement marginalization, segregation, urban design and
planning, urbanization
Introduction
The objectives of urban planning and design basically to fit the places with the socio-economic needs or the life style of the
urban people or the users. The objectives generally implied a question how the lives of all citizens may be improved. But the
users of settlements, particularly urban areas, consist of many communities. Each of communities has own interest, needs and
values, which may conflict to each other. That is why the decisions related to urban design and planning to improve the
quality life of the citizens, tend to be the arena of power conflicts among the actors involved and influenced by the development.
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398 Healey mentioned that negotiations among actors involved in
development process would be influenced by the resources they had. It means that the urban poor who has lack of resources
–no information
– no technology and no capital- would not be able to negotiate their interest with other actors who have more
resources or power. The implication of this situation is that the poor will only have places unwanted by the better off, and may be
unwanted by the poor themselves. The replacement of Rusun Pulo Mas with high-middle income apartment, showed the power
of market to develop urban places. The eviction of Pulo Mas Rusun raised a clash between the inhabitants and the guards.
This incident reflected the powerless of the low income urban people to defend their places wanted by them
One of the requisites to build a place is to fit its plan with the city master plan. The master plan tend only to regulate the
urban land use. But it seems that there is no consideration yet on how the socio-cultural and economic life of urban people would
and should to be organized. In housing development, there was a regulation which determine the proportion of house type based on
income. Developers have to build 6 units of decent houses and 3 units for middle income people for one unit of luxury house. The
spirit of the regulation was the social integration through housing plan and design. But it was generally neglected not only by
developers but local government as well, or they intrepreted the regulation differently. The developers could build the portion of
decent houses somewhere else, or paid some amount of money to local government instead of building the decent houses, such
as in West Java Province. Now the wide socio-economic disparity among the urban people, can be seen clearly through the
different quality of urban settlement and or other urban facilities for urban poor and the better off
The practice of urban places development through market mechanism seem to be unfit with the aspiration to
implement urban sustainable development. This sustainable urban development was based on the principles of good local
governance endorsed by the United Nations, that are Srivanas
Participation: requires freedom of association and expression on the one hand and an organized civil society on the other
hand. Rule of law: requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced
impartially and full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities.
Transparency: decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and regulations.
Information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement.
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399 Responsiveness: requires that institutions and processes try
to develop means to collate views and opinions of all stakeholders and respond to them in a timely manner, and
within a reasonable timeframe. Consensus oriented: requires mediation of the different
interests in society to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be
achieved. Equity and inclusiveness: ensures that all members of society
feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. All groups, particularly the most
vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being
Effectiveness and efficiency: the processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making
the best use of resources at their disposal, the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the
environment.
Accountability: an organization or an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions
Although in Indonesia there are many efforts to build democracy and involving people in many development program
implementation, but it is still far away to have development institution and process that fit the principles of good governance
mentioned above. In my view, based on my observation to Bandung city, instead of reaching a good governance city, we
tend to be in involution process. Housing development in Bandung carried out by the Dutch Government in the early XX
created integrated housing area for high income people, mostly the Europeans, and the low income people, mostly Indonesian or
pribumi. Housing for different income people were arranged through a hierarchy of circulation in such away so the housing
spaces changed smoothly from the high income people to the low
income. While the housing development in 1970’s until 1980’s showed that the new housing development was part of city
development. But since 1990’s the new developments have been created many enclaves in the city area and its surroundings.
These new developments generally give no access to their neighbors, the kampong inhabitants.
It seems that in Dutch era city planners and architects had significant roles in shaping cityscape and created city for the
interest of all inhabitants. The very well known of them is Thomas Karsten. He was a socialist and his decisions on city plan and
design were probably influenced by his ideology. The ideology of architect and city designers, as well as city managers, may have
significant roles in city development. If they took side with the
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400 people, their decision might for the benefit of all. Their ideology
and their political power are very important in creating city for all. Their ideology and power may help creating city institutional
development based on good governance principles. But they have to have sufficient knowledge and understanding the
problems and issues regarding the provision of urban places for the poor and the vulnerable, their need and their social
characteristics as well. This will help them to be able to act fairly.
This paper tries to offer two urban development issues: urbanization and sector informal. These are not new issues, but I
think we do not have sufficient understanding yet about these two issues in the context of creating urban places for all. Urbanization
and sector informal are the phenomena of our cities that have great potency to contribute to urban social and spatial conflicts. At
the fourth part of the paper, I will try to discuss the role of architect and place designer as part of social development. There
will be no conclusion at the end of this paper, as the issues are open to many answers and related to other important issues.
Urbanization, Globalization and Place Identity
Population movement has played a key role not only in the growth of urban centers in Asia but it has strongly influenced
the social, economic and demographic structure and development of those centers Hugo, 2003:7. But not only urbanization, we
are now in the process of globalization as well. A new international division of labor, with an accent on globally
integrated production and the transnational corporation, has dawned. The multinational corporation, which rose rapidly during
the 1970s, has now become common in every corner of the world Fu and Yue, 1996:9. We can see the negative sides of the two
process, as a process of impoverishment and the marginalization of local and national economic actors. But on the other hand job
opportunity is increasing. Looking a job abroad is now becoming easier. Generally working in foreign countries can get much more
money rather than working in Indonesia. It means that from foreign countries, some Indonesian peoples will have potency to
improve the quality of their houses at the place of their origins. But could the local government and the community use this
potency as an engine to improve the quality of their settlement in a wide sense, not only the houses owned by the workers.
Maletis mentioned that there was a causal link between urban population growth and increases in poverty. The majority of
the new urban entrants is poor and tends to settle in poverty- stricken neighborhoods among others in similar or worse
economic conditions Smith. On the other hand, some bussines and urban jobs particularly those that related with multi national
corporation, can create affluent people. The urban poor are not always the new urban migrant as well, they may be the local
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401 people. Urbanization can make the local people to be
marginalized. The migrant can take more benefit from the local resources rather than the local people. According to my general
observation and some qualitatve data, mostly the actors in bussiness areas and the owners of relatively luxury housing at
many locations in Bandung city are not the local people sundanese. Issues regarding the marginalization of the local
people were often discussed in many mass media. It was said that the owners had to live outside the house while the guest lived
inside the house.
Affluent individuals and families are more likely to interact only with other affluent people. They do not only dominate the
urban spaces, but they have much location in rural areas too. They tend to live in a low permeability housing with guards that is
well known as gated community, and likewise the commercial areas and buildings. Modern malls and shopping centres were
designed as such, so there is no trickle down effect to the low income local people areas lived near this modern commercial
activities. Spatial and social segregation exist between the poor and the affluent, whereas their location is close by.
The target group of place development, either commercial buildings or housing, in a modern city is differentiated
by different socio-economic background of them, not by their socio-cultural background. But the socio-economic background of
people tends to coincide with the ethnic background. That is why, if urban development policy was based on market driven, it will
mean that the development would only facilitate or gave benefit to a certain socio-cultural group of people only. As the affluent
people are not the local people, they might need different identity of the place with the local people. In my view, the local community
has a need to maintain and develop their socio-cultural life. The
phenomenon of “mudik” shows that there is a need to go back to the place of origin or their home. On the other hand, the migrants
–individual and families- need a place fit to their social characteristics and identity
Plurality seems a big challenge which has to be responded by the architects, urban planners and designers.
Creating inclusive society –socially and spatially- lead to a
question on how the places for the affluent people have to integrated and segregated with the poor one, to give opportunity
to the poor get gain from the economic power of the affluent. But each of social group have place fit to their own need. The
settlement pattern in the central city of Bandung inherited by the Dutch may give a picture about the spatial and social relationship
between different ethnic and socio-economic background of the inhabitants. The settlement consists of large blocks separated by
city circulation. Houses of the better off located at along side the road, but the lower income group mostly lived in the inner side of
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402 the blocks or the kampong areas. The inhabitants of the kampong
had a good access to the main road and other part of the city. I lived at the city centre part of Bandung many years ago.
I have a perception that social relationship between the indigenous local people sundanese or pribumi with the Chinese
descent was relatively good. There was an economic network among the medium large scale textile traders of Chinese descent
with the home industry small scale industry of clothes making ran informally by the local people. Around Lebaran, the Chinese
usually gave presents to their Moslem neighbour and relatives, and the other way round the Moslems gave presents to their
Chinese neighbour and relatives around Imlek. Kampong area in city business area made the place affordable by low income
people. They had also good access to the economic activities existed in their area.
But social integration is not only the matter of design. Socio-political and economic condition at the macro level will
determine whether a good network and social relationship could be established or not. A good design will facilitate and help the
social relationship flourish. The question is whether the designers or architects have to take first initiative to create inclusive
community, or whether they just follow the mainstream. In my view, architect and urban designers have to be a powerful
negotiator in the urban places development process for the interest of all. This means that the designers or the architects
have to able to give inspirations and influences other actors
– particularly the local government- to act in the interest of all.
The present condition of Bandung city is very different with the condition of Bandung fifty years ago. The old Ducth
settlement pattern may be unfit for th present situation. But the settlement or modern housing development carried out by the
Dutch government in the colonization era gave a good lesson to be learned. City seems to be treated as an integration of a
numbers of different settlement that had their own characteristic. Each settlement or part of the city was planned and designed
differenty. But in each of settlement there were places for various income group fit with their socio economic and socio cultural
need.
It seems that inclusive design may help creating more integrated urban places that will be able to flourish social
integration. But how the marginalized local people to be able to maintain their place identity, while the resources to develop were
in the hand of non local people, and or they become a minority in their own place? It is also questionable whether the identity of
place has to change or has to be maintained. Another thing related to urbanization is that the process of social change may
occur rapidly and very dynamics, while the buildings and space more difficult to change. The architects and the developers tend
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403 to want their creation to be lasting as well. These raise a
question: should and how the architectural design take place in urban transformation.
Informal Sector and Settlement
Informal sector and settlement are the characteristic of city in the developing countries. Since economic crisis in 1998 the
informal economics seem to have been growing more rapidly. Many public spaces in Bandung, such as lapangan Gasibu and
Tegallega are used for temporary market pasar kaget on every Sunday morning. Much kind of commodities are sold, from
agricultural product, food, clothes up to motor cycles. These places used by people for shopping, eating, sporting and leisure.
The users of informal activities and places are generally low and middle income people.
Up till now we tend to see the kampongs as a product of informal economy or poverty. Our research and observation
showed that the urban kampongs located in the inner city tend to be heterogeneous socially and economically. While the socio-
cultural background of the inhabitants of kampong in the city periphery are more homogeneous, but economically they may be
heterogeneous. Informal sector and settlement are not always identical with poverty
Many researches show that the kampongs inhabitants can be happy and enjoy staying in the kampong, and many
people enjoy shopping in the informal commercial areas. But there is a great tendency that city managers prefer the informal
one. Kampong tends to be transformed into apartment type of
housing “rumah susun”. And it seem that government institution only have very little attention to the need of low income business
men women for urban places to accommodate their business activities
It was expected that those activities would disappear with the growth of the economy.
Contrary to earlier predictions, the informal economy has been growing rapidly in almost every
corner of the globe, including industrialized countries – it can no
longer be considered a temporary or residual phenomenon. The bulk of new employment in recent years, particularly in developing
and transition countries, has been in the informal economy. Most people have been going into the informal economy because they
cannot find jobs or are unable to start businesses in the formal economy. But work in the informal economy cannot be termed
“decent” compared to recognized, protected, secure, formal employment ILO, 2002:1
ILO also mentioned that there has also been increasing flexibilization and informalization of production and employment
relationships in the context of global competition and information
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404 and communications technology ICT. More and more firms,
instead of using a fulltime, regular workforce based in a single, large registered factory or workplace, are decentralizing
production and reorganizing work by forming more flexible and specialized production units, some of which remain unregistered
and informal. It means that most of urban population in Indonesia will remain work in the informal sector in the future. The informal
way of earning money seem influence how people use their space.
People work in informal sector tends to have no spatial separation. They use their house for their income generating
activities. Their living room can be their working space as well; they may be use public space for their activities. The way they
use their housing and the urban spaces seem to be different with them who work in the formal sector. The question is whether the
informality is a way of life, and whether the informality should be seen as a part of socio-culture characteristic, the way people
arranges and uses their space, and this way of live should be responded by design.
Architects tend to organize space according to its function, and most of us consider the informal people used the
urban spaces improperly. Many urban dwellers and urban managers regard the informal sector activities as disturbing and
breaking the law. On the other hand the local authority seems never to consider the urban spaces needed by the low income
informal sector seriously. They focus their interest to the formal one. The spatial problems raise by the informal sector are similar
with the urbanization phenomena mentioned above, so as the challenge: how design can contribute to create inclusive society.
The Role of Architect and Design in Social Transformation
The third issue is about the role of the architect. Development is a result of negotiations amongst the actors
involved. They, who have more resources, will dominate the decisions. Knowledge is only one of the resources the actors may
have. How knowledge uses and how far it can influence development decisions, it will depend among other things on the
ideology of the actor, and the appropriate role of the architects. Can architects have a strategic position in development decision
process? How? It seems that we have to change the architectural institution which regulates the position of architect in the
development process as well. But we may not know yet what kind of change we need.
Margolins mentioned that since the Industrial Revolution, the dominant design paradigm has been one of design for market,
and alternatives have received little attention. And there has been little theorizing about a model of product design for social need.
Nor has attention been given to changes in the education of
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405 product designers that might prepare them to design for
populations in need rather than for the market alone. They also raised a number of questions which I think we should try to
answer 2002:8: What role can a designer play in a collaborative process of social intervention? What is currently being done in
this regard and what might be done? How can agencies that fund social welfare projects and research gain a stronger perception of
design as a socially responsible activity? What kinds of products meet the needs of vulnerable populations?
In my opinion, in Indonesia design tend to be regarded as a micro element only in urban development. Most people consider
design relates only to the beautification of place or building, and so, it is only a matter of rich people who can pay the cost and the
price. There were some architects who worked for poor community, but the scope of development they involved relatively
limited. It was mostly not related with creating spaces for all in macro context. It seems that many efforts have to be done:
improving the institution, the knowledge, the education and also the perception of other development actors regarding design as a
socially responsible activity
Reference Amir S.A 2005 Segregasi dan Keadilan Ruang, Kasus Studi:
Lingkungan Perumahan Dualistik di Bandung dan Makassar, Tesis S3 tak dipublikasikan, SAPPK-ITB
Barbosa, EM. 2001. Urban Spatial Segregation and Social
Differentiation: Foundation for a Typological Analysis, Paper prepared for International Seminar on Segregation
in the City Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, July 25-28.
Cuthbert A.R. 2006 The New Imperialism: Culture, Class and
Space , Seminar Proceedings, International Seminar on
Urban Culture, Arte-Polis: Creative Culture and the Making of Place, Bandung, 21-22 July
Duany J, 1998 Latin American Perspectives, Reconstructing Racial Identity: Ethnicity, Color, and Class among
Dominicans in the United States and Puerto Rico
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http:lap.sagepub.com Fu L, Yue Y. Ed 1996 Emerging world cities in Pacific Asia.
Tokyo, United
Nations University
Press http:www.unu.eduunupressunupbooksuu11eeuu11ee00
.htm Healey P. 2000 Planning Theory and Urban and Regional
Dynamics: A Comment of Yiftachel and Huxley. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 24:
917-921
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406 Hugo G 2003 Urbanization in Asia: An Overview. Paper
prepared for Conference on African Migration in Comparative Perspective, Johannesburg, South Africa, 4-7
June 2003 2-Hugo.pdf
International Labor Conference 2002. 90
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Session 2002. Report VI. Decent work and the informal economy. Sixth
item on the agenda. Jamieson B, Trade Liberalization: Culture, Identity and Social
Cohesion , paper prepared on behalf of the PRI-GCON
Working Group on World Trade Issues. Kavaratzis M City Marketing: The Past, the Present and Some
Unresolved Issues, in Geography Compass 13 2007: 695
–712, 10.1111j.1749-8198.2007.00034.x Maletis J. Is Urbanization the Cause of Third World
Unemployment and Poverty? http:www.kimep.kzSSEpopdev-
kTopicsConferencesUrbanizationMaletis5-deh.html
Marcus P 2001 Enclaves Yes, Ghettoes, No: Segregation and
the State, Paper prepared for International Seminar on Segregation in the City Lincoln Institute of Land Policy,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, July 25-28. Margolin V
, Margolin S 2002 A “Social Model” of Design: Issues of Practice and Research. Design Issues 18 4, 24-30
McGuinness M What is the Cause of Third World Urbanization? Economic
Efficiency, http:www.kimep.kzSSEpopdev-
kTopicsConferencesUrbanization mcguinness4-deh.html
Sabatini F et al 2001 Residential Segregation Pattern Changes in Main Chilean Cities: Scale Shift and Increasing
Malignancy, Paper prepared for International Seminar on Segregation in the City Lincoln Institute of Land Policy,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, July 25-28.
Smith T Are Cities Concentrating Economic Inequality? http:www.kimep.kzSSEpopdev-
kTopicsConferencesUrbanizationUrban.html Srinavas H. . Environmental Governance Issues for Urban
Areas, United Nations Environment Program, International Environmental Technology Center
hari_urban_egovernance-ppt.pdf Reinders L, Re-imagining a new town: the architecture of
empowerment and segregation in a Dutch post-war neighborhood
Schnell I; Harpaz M. 2005 A model of a heterogeneous neighborhood, Geo-Journal 2005 64: 105
–115 _ Springer 2006
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407
THE KNOWLEDGE CITY: WHOSE KNOWLEDGE? A Case Study of Jakarta
Triatno Yudo Harjoko
Department of Architecture, University of Indonesia
Abstract
Knowledge as Foucault argues is power. It embodies as episteme within society. Formation, transformation of a city has
closely been related to a constitution of its society. Indonesia is constituted by huge continuum of society ranging from the tribal,
class-divided up to capitalist societies. Recent urban settlement in Indonesia represents this continuum. Its plurality represents a
dual-society. The triadic cultural theme of knowledge-power- space discloses the spatial formation of a city. Scarcity of urban
land stimulates conflict and those powerful will win.
This paper critically assesses the episteme of architects and planners that assume consensus approach to city formation.
A city has been envisaged as merely composition of matters. A city is not what appears or manifests; it is about what Lefebvre
calls informe – liminal form that conceals its connectivity and
rupture. Analysis focuses on the constitution of society in Indonesian cities that shows maps of social practices with no
traces. Any society will presume knowledge of its own that manifests its practices over urban space. Findings have shown
that the city in Indonesia is a map of a disintegrated-social calculus; and that the weakest are marginalized.
Keywords city, knowledge, power, space, and constitution of
society I will refer the term knowledge city in this seminar to a city
that develops and is based upon knowledge. Knowledge here applies to general knowledge that human being may acquire and
is not confined to that of scientific. Knowledge is a product of human culture
– non-material one. A city and the rise of social are two sides of a coin. The
rise of social is in existence because of the emerging plurality of human existence in a place called polis or city. In turn, the human
condition of plurality is essentially the condition of all political life. This condition permits or enables individuals or groups to have
authority, control, and domination over others. Under the condition of plurality, humans take various forms and degrees of
social integration according to their common knowledgevalue and interest. From this societal phenomenon in a polis or city it
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408 has been invented the idea of privatepublic realms. The social
demands public affairs and interests invested in a city to ensure that people have the equal right to live, act in it.
Indonesia is a multicultural society in which it remains being constituted by all types of society, that is, tribal, class-
divided, and class capitalist society. Their locales – place and
setting of interaction – represent their respective public image.
Who Build a City? A city is build by its people or society.
What kind of society? At present Western world, society is predominantly produced, in a Giddensian sense, by a structure,
system and structuration called capitalism. It is relatively mono dimensional as Herbert Marcuse terms it. A city is market center
in this sense that governs its formation. Social practices produce locales that secure their everyday activities.
In Indonesian case a city has been created by heterogeneous people, groups as a mix of tribal, class-divided to
capitalist society. It embodies a mix of differential knowledge and worldviews. It is a calculus of a differential social formation. Each
group will perceive a city as their own image or imagining. Urban generation and formation is governed by this various political
interests of the society
– such as government ‘pseudo public’, public, private, and popular sectors.
Understanding society means understanding how it is constituted and how it practices spatially. In a significant disparity
among people in a multicultural society like Indonesia, the picture is more than intricate and challenging. I will discuss this spatial
form in this context in terms of mandala to refer to designate a
structure of order, where the ‘Great Man’ is represented in the center of a circle divided by four, a symbolic representation of the
‘nuclear atom’ of the human psyche It is used to refer a centrality of space that may be understood as a representation of the Self
or of the Selves – ‘man of power.’
Perfect Mandala. In the past, especially in the Javanese
society, the city was primarily constituted by the court culture – a
class-divided society. The dominant society spatially segregated city localities, namely, the court culture or the ruling class from the
rest. The city-state or Kutha was arranged in a concentric mode and the spatial order was conceived into five hierarchies: 1 at the
center was the Sultan as the sole source of power; its center was reinforced by Sultan
’s kinsmen such as 2 Nuclear nobility in the kraton, 3 Nobility in the walled city and 4 Commoners and
muetihan villages of four corners; at the outer circle 5 rural population in the countryside.
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409 Figure 1.
Perfect Mandala
Mandala of the Conqueror. The colonial government
built their own cities to secure their interests. Coastal cities like Jakarta was primarily built outward orientated as a terminal to
export resources accumulated from the colonies in Indonesia. In this colonial scheme [knowledge], the idea of a city was a
collection of administrative buildings, colonial residences, warehouses, and military camps. The Dutch shaped Jakarta as
Mandala of the Conqueror by building a square called Champ de Mars
literally means ‘Field of March’. This signified the spatial and military importance of Jakarta and of its government system.
This square is now called Monumen Nasional or National Monument.
Under the Japanese occupation of about three and half years, from 1942-1945, the morphology of Jakarta did not
change. The Japanese instead introduced a ‘bureaucratic system’ to the city administration, introducing several levels of municipal
administration called tonarigumi or neighborhood groups that essentially was a technology of surveillance. This system was
effectively exploited by the New Order regime.
In the post colonial era nothing much has been changed. Cities, especially Jakarta, are
still representation of the ‘powerful’. While societies develop and grow they are simultaneously
disintegrating into two extreme modes – dual society. One
extreme enjoys connectivity by time-space distantiation and disembedding mechanisms beyond locality; the other are suffered
from involution and marginalization. Disembedding mechanisms such as money, symbolic means, English as the lingua franca
and the Internet help to lift out and activities in an abstract or online form that were once embedded in particular material goods
and in places.
Mandala of the great man. After independence in 1945,
the periods of history of Jakarta can be classified into the two distinct politics and administration: the Old Order and New Order,
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410 representing Soekarnos and Soehartos periods respectively. The
Old Order took the period of 1945-1965. The New Order is the period of 1965-1998. These orders were named by the Soeharto
regime exactly to distinguish their difference. During the Soekarno period the country was still overwhelmed by the new social and
political condition, associated with the euphoria of freedom and the overturning of imperialism. Soekarno faced internal problems
of disintegration of the outer islands in the Nusantara, who sought to gain their freedom. Indonesian nationalism was Soekarno
’s response. Soekarno’s view of development was in direct
opposition to those of Hatta, his vice president. Soekarno insisted that the revolusi belum selesai, or revolution was not finish yet,
and development was to focus on nation building. Hatta, an economist, had a more pragmatic view that Indonesia needed to
make more effort and give attention to the economic development. However, Hatta lost political support, preferring to
step down from the political arena.
Soekarno, the first president of Indonesia, was born from an aristocratic priyayi
class, holding the title of ‘Raden’ before his name. Although he talked of his poverty, which was actually that
of the Javanese people as a whole, he claimed he belonged to the common people. After the Dutch formally transferred
sovereignty to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia on 27 December 1949, Soekarno took his leave of Yogyakarta, the
Republic’s revolutionary capital, and returned to Jakarta, the capital of the new Indonesia. Like other Javanese rulers in the
more distant past, Soekarno adopted of the regal which conferred power upon him.
Soekarno’s initial heroic accomplishment in the new capital city was to replace colonial names, notably changing the
name of Batavia once again to Jakarta. His entry into the presidential palace, formerly the residence of Dutch Governor-
General, was a moment of historic fulfilment. The Champ de Mars, or Koningsplein, the vast square to the south of the palace,
was named Medan Merdeka Freedom Square. The residency became the Istana Merdeka Freedom Palace.
Since Soekarno had graduated as an architect-engineer from the Bandung Institute of Technology, he had been obsessed
with the building of the representation of the glory of Indonesian struggle for independence in the capital city of Jakarta. In his
speech on ‘the transformation of Djakarta Raya,’ he proclaimed to “[build] up Djakarta as beautifully as possible, build it as
spectacularly as possible, so that this city, which has become the centre of the struggle of the Indonesian
people, will be an inspiration and beacon to the whole of struggling mankind and to all the emerging forces. If Egypt
was able to construct Cairo as its capital, Italy its Rome,
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411 France its Paris and Brazil its Brasilia, then Indonesia must
also proudly present Djakarta as the portal of the country .”
Soekarno 1962 One-way for Soekarno to realise his dream of nation
building was through the built environment. He seriously put forward modernity as a movement to liberate Indonesia from the
colonial and imperial remnants of the Dutch. Soekarnos ambition in the planning and design of the Central Jakarta was seen as a
part of his larger political plans to enforce his authoritarian regime.
Soekarno conceived of Jakarta as a portal for Indonesia, a showcase of the country, albeit masking mounting economic
troubles and political instability. If the city of Jakarta were spectacular, so it was assumed, was the rest of the country. To
realise his dream, he conceived Jakarta City spatially as a sequence of spectacle. They constitute prestigious monuments,
buildings, and thoroughfares: a series of urban projects from its portal, namely, the Kemayoran airport in the North of Jakarta to
the suburb of the South of Jakarta, Kebayoran. Along this route, Thamrin and Sudirman Avenues, Soekarno placed different
monuments and prestigious buildings: the National Monument, the Sarinah Department Store, the Hotel Indonesia and a
wellcoming monument Tugu Selamat Datang, as well as Sporting Complex or Olympic Stadium in Senayan.
Structuration of society was centred on nationalism and ideologies put forward by Soekarno. Alternative ideas that were
related to a developmental economy were easily equated as capitalist and worst imperialist. In this sense, the structuration of
the society became tribalistic. Within such a political climate, people obsessed with maintaining the size of political
organisations by accumulating party members down to the village level to compete with their opponents. Consequently, social
spaces were developed to accommodate this fashion. Jakarta became a spatial collection of fragmented political groups
attached to their respective domiciles. This fragmentation of society was especially noticeable in kampung settlements. In a
political sense, different kampungs had different political base- camps. For example, different kampungs provided separate
bases for members and supporters of communist, nationalist and religious parties respectively. In this period, it was common to
refer to a kampung
as ‘red’, ‘green’ or nationalist. Individuals felt the pressure to be associated with ideological parties and
positions. Nobody could claim to be golongan putih, or neutral, since such an individual could be branded as kontra revolus,i or
contra-revolutionary. Despite decades of change, today we can still find such an attribute given to a kampung., Penggilingan is,
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412 for example, daerah hijau,
or a ‘green’ area because most of the population are members of the Islamic party.
In this situation, political ideologies, rather than class status or the like heavily influenced social action. Surprisingly, the
different competing groups all regarded Soekarno as Pemimpin Besar Revolusi, or Big Revolution Leader, and consequently,
were subject to Soekarnos charisma. Spatially Jakarta was divided into three social spaces. Firstly, there were the Dutch
historic places, including residential areas were mostly acquired by the government and a few Chinese businessmen. Secondly,
there were the heroic spacse of nationalism as a representation of the Self of the great man - Soekarno. This was especially
evident in the centre of Jakarta as well as at the Nusantara. Thirdly, there were the undeveloped or untouched kampung
settlements in the periphery that represented fragments of golongans or political factions.
Mandalas of the powerful: Orderly Chaos.
The ‘New Order’ is Soehartos era. The great majority sees this period, from
1965-1998, as an era of pembangunan or development. Soeharto and his subsequent cabinets of technocrats in the different
periods of the presidency implemented capitalism in the Indonesian economy. He has authoritarian in approach of
Javanese background, his attitude to governance was informed by his being a military general. With a diam or silence in
maintaining power, he reserved the decisions for every strategic political and economic decision in the country for himself. In this
manner, he became the only centre for decisions that affected the peoples fate. Social practices became heavily depended on his
decisions, since no opposition was allowed.
Social closure through exclusion is inevitably identified with him, his family and cronies. A common saying, publicly
mocks him and his cronies, says that Indonesia sudah habis dibagi ke keluarga dan kroni-kroni Soeharto Indonesian
geography has completely been dealt out to Soehartos family and cronies. Jakarta was no exception to this dividing of spoils
during the period. Urban planning has forced to ad hoc changes due to the vital investment of large companies. Business in
property speculation boomed along with the increase in both industrial and service sectors. The unjustifiable multiplication of
property development projects related to high-income housing took place in the greater Jakarta or in the JABODETABEK region
Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi
Jakarta became the city of spectacles. Beautiful architecture lined along the thoroughfares, and in different places
was built single large property developments. Before the proliferation of the property businesses, urban development in
Jakarta was exemplified by ribbon development criss-crossing the city. Here and there are jungles or enclaves of the unplanned
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413 kampung settlements. In this mode of development, it seemed
that the local government simply let go planning controls, leading to fragmentation, with projects appearing in any places the
investors could get hold of. No efforts were made to control such a development, which inevitably resulted in an increasing burden
on the main roads, with direct access to developments.
National Monument
Hotel Indonesia Senayan Sport Complexes
Well-coming Statue Sarinah Deparment
Store
Figure 2. Mandala of the great man - Soekarno. He manifested his Self into Jakarta.
Source: After Taylor,J. L. and D. G. Williams, Upgrading of Low-income Residential Areas in Jakarta and Manila, in Urban Planning Practice in Developing Countries, eds. J.L. Taylor and D. G. Williams, Oxford, New
York, Toronto, Sydney, Paris, Frankfurt: Pergamon Press, 1982: 239-58, p. 247
NUSANTARA
Climate of urban development, critics of the New Order, like Rendra, a poet, emerged to write the following verse in Jakarta in
1977:
We are dominated by the dream of becoming other people
We are strangers in the land of our ancestors
Dazed, the villagers chase dreams and sell themselves to Jakarta
Dazed, Jakartans chase dreams And sell themselves to Japan,
Europe, and America. This poem vividly illustrates the simulacra of Jakarta City.
The city becomes alien to its own people, becomes hyperreal. In this sense, Jakarta becomes a territory that no longer precedes
the map. On Baudrillards account, simulacra are not only a game played with signs; they imply social relations and social
power, such as that in the New Order government, when
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414 modernisation was taking place through the ideology of
economic growth and through authoritarian government. The signification of pembangunan
or ‘development’ conveys meanings intended to economically increase the GNP. This was done by
letting resources be developed by advanced countries, and physically by building a modern beautiful city to promote
pembangunan. Jakarta as a Capital City was especially supposed to provide services to achieve pembangunan. The services and
infrastructure was to conform to an international standard characteristic of best cities in the advanced world. In short,
Jakarta should simulate the modern city of the world. This simulation inevitably depresses the real map of the kampungs
social, economic, and political existence. It then re-emerges in this subjugated map an authentic Jakarta known as
perkampungan besar.
Source: Taken from Kompas newspaper, M. Kusumawijaya, Thamrin-Sudirman Aaavenue, Jakarta: A Case Study in the Problems of Modernization in a Developing Metropolis, International Workshop on Housing - Urban
Coherence and Housing Strategies, UNHCS and PGCHS KU Leuven, Bandung 1990, p. 6 Figure 3.
A caricature of King Kong, the land mafia on top of the National Monument in Jakarta
In the late 1980s, an economic boom due, to the foreign capital inflow to the country and the economic growth of the
country, had engendered a property boom, especially in the commercial sector. The extensive land acquisition in the
strategic area of the Jakarta has phased out a number of kampung settlements.
Following economic boom due to the blessing of the oil prize increase by the end 1970s, Indonesia started its economic
plan the controversial economic growth in the New Order of government. Primary cities, such as Jakarta, Bandung and
Surabaya, gained momentum for their development including incessant migration from all over the country. In this period,
government sector, instead of public, was then and still is now a dominant player in the economy where urban investments were
dominated by this sector. As a result, the government programs and implementations were beyond the public control.
The destruction or penggusuran of kampung, both ‘legal’
and illegal squatter’s kampung, has been going on since the 1980s up to now. It underwent in either a ‘formal’ way through a
process of negotiation and subsequent compensation, or paksa forced with no compensation especially for those of squatter
kampung. Statistical data recorded by Urban Poor Consortium UPC in Jakarta indicate that more than 170,000 households
evicted and about 8600 houses have demolished Table 1.
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415
TIME-SPACE DISTANTIATION
Figure 4. Structuration, Spatial Implication the image of the city
LOCALE OF Y
Medium Outcome
Outcome Medium
Production of Social
Interaction B
Reproduction of social systems
B Medium
Outcome Outcome
Medium Area of Conflict
Production of Social
Interaction A
Reproduction of social systems
A Medium
Outcome Outcome
Medium Production of
Social Interaction
A Reproduction of
social systems A
Medium Outcome
Outcome Medium
Production of Social
Interaction B
Reproduction of social systems
B Area of Conflict
LOCALE OF X
OTHER LOCALES VIRTUALRHIZOME
Figure 5. Systemic destruction of kampung settlement and life. a. Penggusuran in the 1985 in Bendungan HIlir, Jakarta Source:
http:www.urbanpoor.or.idgaleri , 24 April 2004; b Penggusuran in
Kampung Sawah, Jakarta – 2004, Source:
http:www.urbanpoor.or.idgaleri , 24 April 2004
a b
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416
Table 1. Eviction in Jakarta, 1996 - 2002
NO LOCATION
DATE TOTAL
Households or buildings
1 DKI Jakarta
1990 739 hh
8037 buildings,
fences, houses,
billboards, and
canteen
2 DKI Jakarta
1991 8.443 hh
754 hh 512
buildings 5.049
houses
3 DKI Jakarta
1995 45 buildings
4 DKI Jakarta
1992 6784
shacks, retail kiosks,
buildings, people, and
houses
5 DKI Jakarta
Jan-December 1996 265 hh
6 Greater Jakarta Jabotabek
Jan-December 1996 66,526 hh
7 Greater Jakarta Jabotabek
Jan-December 1997 61919 hh
8 Flood canals Kali Jodo,
Kelurahans of Pejagalan and Penjaringan, North Jakarta
1998 350 houses
9 Pesing Polgar, Kedaung
Kaliangke, West Jakarta 1998
667 houses 10
Kamal Muara, Penjaringan, North Jakarta
1998 208 kk
11 Under the overhead railway
lines from the Sawah Besar Terminal to Mangga Besar
Terminal in Kelurahan Karang Anyar, Central Jakarta
11 November 2000 300 kk
12 Jalan I Gusti Ngurai Rai, East
Jakarta and Kranji, Bekasi 2000
13 River banks from Kali Kanal to
Kali Tanjung West Jakarta 2000
14 Pulo Gebang, Cakung, East
Jakarta 31-Oct-00
50 hh 15
Pulo Gebang, Cakung, East Jakarta
18-Jul-01 12 hh
16 Pulo Gebang Cakung East
Jakarta 01-Aug-01
16 hh 17
Bonded Warehouse in Kecamatan Cilincing, North
Jakarta 22-Aug-01
18 Kampung Baru, Kelurahan
Karang Tengah, RT 03 RW 01, Ciledug, in Tangerang
23-Aug-01 150 hh
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20 Kampung nelayan Ancol Timur,
North Jakarta 24-Oct-01
74 hh 21
Tanggul Jagung, Penjaringan, North Jakarta
29-30 October 2001 1200 hh
22 Banjir Kanal, Teguk Gong, North
Jakarta 31-Oct-01
5.010 hh 23
Kampung Rawa Das, Pondok Kopi, East Jakarta
29-30 October 2001 2000 people
24 Pesing, Bantaran Kali Angke,
Cengkareng, West Jakarta 13 November 2001
30 houses 25
Pela Pela, Tanjung Priok, North Jakarta
13 November 2001 26
Bantaran Banjir Kanal, Pejagalan, Penjaringan, North
Jakarta 13 November 2001
720 hh, 500 people
27 Bantaran kali Banjir Kanal,
Penjaringan North Jakarta 27-Feb-02
350 houses 28
Jalan Pegangsaan II, Kelapa Gading, North Jakarta
3-May-02 10 houses
29 Kelurahan Penjagalan,
Penjaringan Jakarta Utara 30-May-02
15 houses 30
Cakung Barat Rw 09, Jakarta Timur
30-May-02 22 houses
31 Bantaran Banjir Kanal,
Penjaringan Jakarta Utara 24-Jun-02
100 houses 32
Rumah PSK Pela-pela Tanjung Priuk
24-Jun-02 1 houses
33 Nelayan East Ancol, North
Jakarta 5-Aug-02
31 hh 34
Kampung Baru, kelurahan Cakung Barat East Jakarta
27-Aug-02 15 houses
35 Kelurahan Pakuan , Bogor
30-Sep-02 14 houses
36 Kebon Jeruk, Jl Budi Raya RT01
RW02 West Jakarta 28 -29-Sept 02
7 houses 37
Kelurahan Kelapa Gading Barat, Kecamatan Kelapa Gading,
North Jakarta 24-Oct-02
300 houses 38
Duri Pulo, Kec. Gambir, Central Jakarta
31-Oct-02 16 houses
39 Tegal Danas, kelurahan
Cikarang, Bekasi 29-Dec-02
2 houses Total
170. 352 hh , 8645
houses The unit measurement is rather confusing since it mixes incompatible units
such as houses, buildings, people and households; while at the end the total units refer simply to households and houses.
Source: Urban Poor Consortium Website, Data penggusuran di Jakarta Dari Tahun 1996 sampai dengan Desember 2002,
http:www.urbanpoor.or.id41.11.0.0.1.0.shtml , 15 May 2004
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418
Figure 5. The private development patterns relative to their sizes that range from 50 to over 1000 hectares.
Source: Pt. Procon Indah in association with Jones Lang Wootton, Major Residential Estates in the Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Area JABOTABEK,
poster, 1996
50-99 hectares
100-249 hectares
250-499 hectares 500-999 hectares
Over 1000 hectares
Figure 6. The private development patterns of the shopping centers in Jakarta. Source: Pt. Procon Indah in association with Jones Lang wootton, Major Residential
Estates in the Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Area JABOTABEK, poster, 1996
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419
Worst Condition Moderate Condition
Light Condition LEGEND:
Figure 7. Patches of Jakarta.
Kampung Kumuh or destitute kampung in
Jakarta is located mostly in North Jakarta where
industries are located Source: Dinas Pemetaan
dan Pengukuran Tanah, Pemetaan di DKI Jakarta:
Sejarah dan Prospek Pengembangannya, 2000,
p. 57
Figure 8. Simplified schematic urban spatial configuration of cities in Indonesia during the New Order
– Mandala of the Powerful Panoptic enclaves
Settlement of the underprivileged
kampungs – continuously
marginalized Space of the Ruler
Settlement of the privileged
CommercialCapitalist space
Government Office
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420
Figure 9. Perferct Mandala and Mandala of The Ruler Schematic diagrams of Towns in Mojokuto, East Java Tabanan, Bali.
Source: Geertz, C., Peddlers and Princes. Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press,1963, p. 10 19
TABANAN Square
Temple KING
Government Offices
Temple ROYAL HOUSES
HAMLETS BANJAR
MARKET Chinese
Stores
‘Javanese’ Neighborhood
MARKET Secondary Business
Section
SQUARE Major Business
Section
Railroad Station
Government Offices
Town Shrine
MOJOKUTO Residential Areas
Traders Neighbor
hood
MOSQUE
Multiplicity of Mandala: Disorder and Hyper-real. After
the fall of Suharto’s regime the country has been celebrated an ecstasy of a sudden political freedom and reform or Reformasi,
while ignoring the fundamental factor that path the way of the collap
se of Suharto’s regime, that is, severe economic crisis following other country such as Thailand. Political freedom along
with the crumbling down of businesses increasing poverty acceleration The implication of this abrupt change has been
swerving into However, this situation has not escape people from injustice, since vestiges or remnants of old political culture are still
breathing in a rhizome. Economic crisis aggravates the political situation. The country has been busy with political reform and
threatened against disintegration. In the one hand, political autonomy to local government simply stimulates new form of
authoritarianism in the local governments. Cities reincarnate into those of the past - the seat of rulers. The commons and
kampungs remain marginalized, and the latter continuously densified until they surpass their ecological limits, hence, become
‘burden’ or ‘pathological’ to the city. In the other, the constitution of society has shift into a
different unusual mode. Political existence of people, namely their aspirations, no longer refers to the existing political situation, but
to fragmented groups. It is an aggregate of persons, not just of individuals without active participation. This is a ‘collective spirit’
that is created in which aptitudes, identities and individualities dissolve. Capitalism plays crucial role in the shifting of
structuration of urban society and its tradition. This creates a
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421 manifold of social closure of exclusion. According to Maffesoli this
mass is then tribalise d into ‘little masses’ which are heterogenous
fragments, the remainder of mass consumption society, groups distinguished by their member’s shared lifestyles and tastes.
Maffesoli terms it tribus . These are not ‘tribes’ in the traditional
anthropological sense, for they do not have the fixity and longevity of tribes.
Urban society evolves like fractals of which they are constituted by very diverse tribuses. However, in a simplified
mode it is recognizable from its simply dual image of capitalistbazaar society. A city holds a derogatory name
– the big village, or McGee perceives it more as a developed region called
kotadesa. A tribus that constituted by the common or popular sectors reside in marginalized kampungs. The government sector
enjoys its privileged to reside in a center. Private sector with its economic power has privileged to acquire what ever locale they
consider as economically strategic. The latter grows as unstructured mushroom everywhere in the urban region, such as
condo, malls and hypermarket such as Carefour. There are notable examples of a tribus formation both in economic and
spatial terms. The emergence of electronic cities spread all over Jabodetabek. The exclusive commercial districts in Kemayoran,
Jakarta are named Cyber City. This is a clearly commercially
intended term, since the word ‘cyber’ refers to something virtual. While the popular struggle for their urban space by means of
usurpation in any locale they can usurp. Within the housing sector, the picture has been even
more schizophrenic. There are new real estate developments that go beyond what they call market mechanism. Demand has been
generated by dream through media. Kota Wisata or literally ‘Tour
City’ is an exemplary case. The city is finely designed through multiple clusters of foreign names, such as Florida, Orlando, and
Barcelona. These are closely related to desire, to fantasies. They are hyper-real. Economic terms of production and consumption
have lost their principal meaning relative to market; it is simply a production of production and production of consumption.
Concluding Remarks: Princes and Peddlers
Aptly coined by Gertz, Peddlers and Princes is an apposite metaphor for towns and cities in Indonesia as they
developed through history, especially those of inland. Such cities were usually generated through imposition that constitutes a
mode of urban diffusion that is virtually inseparable from the expansion of the empire, and is usually accompanied by the
establishment of an administrative organization designed to sustain the value system of colonial power. The alternative to
urban imposition is urban generation. It is a mode of processual
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422 change subsumed within the inclusive field of social differentiation
and stratification. Indonesian cities remain or endure a
mix between ‘court culture’ and ‘popular culture’. The urban formation is a
representation of power that may emerge as a very strong single nucleus or multiple nuclei that are barely integrated; the most
crucial issues in this development are movement or traffic management. The urban generation resembles the process of
colonization that has little connection or interaction with the peripheries rather than among centers. In this process, public
realm that is manifest in space has been neglected. When ever possible every public space is usurped by informal sectors.
Kampungs have developed into its limit and created ecological problems in the city. Globalization also means the expansion of
capitalism. Global decisions further create local collisions.
The geography of the city in Indonesia is simply a map of a disintegrated-social calculus incorporating a competing
knowledge within the society and unfortunately the weakest are severely marginalized.
References For detailed discussion see Giddens, A., The Constitution of
Society. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University California Press, 1984.
Boulding asserts that the growth of public image depends on the larger growth of organization and society. Boulding, K.E.,
The Image: Knowledge and Life in Society. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1961, esp. Chapter 5.
Marcuse, H., One Dimensional Man. Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society, London: Routledge, 1964.
The term government in Indonesia is pemerintah noun, perintah verb, to give order. This term may have historically
derived or originated from the court culture compare to l’etat est moi.
Franz, M.L. von, ‘The process of Individuation’, in C. Jung ed., Man and His Symbols, conveived and edited by C. Jung,
Picador, 1964, p. 230. Soema
rdjan, S., ‘The Kraton in the Javanese Social Structure,’ in Soebadio, H. and C. A du Marchie-Sarvaas, Dynamics of
Indonesia History, Amsterdam, New York, and Oxford: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1978: p.222.
Giddens showed that modern society is characterized by time- space distantiation and disembedding mechanisms.
Traditional society is based on direct interaction between people living close to each other. Modern societies stretch
further and further across space and time using mass media and interactive media. See Anthoni Giddens. The
constitution of society, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984.
and Manifestation, Medan, 13
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November 2007
423 Legge, A. D., op. cit., p.20.
Legge, A. D., op. cit., p. 240. Cited from A. Kusno, Behind the Postcolonial, London and New
York: Routledge, 2000, p. 54. Wiryomartono, A. B. P., op. cit., p. 159.
See Boddy, T., The Political Uses of Urban Design: The Jakarta Example, in D. Webster ed., The Southeast Asian
Environment, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1983. Also A. Kusno, op. cit., p. 51.
Karl Jackson writes The truly powerful man is the one who sits motionless while his enemies energetically posture and
exercise their power, giving the evidence that they are so weak that they are forced to make the first move,
dissipating their power rather than concentrating it. Quoted from Schwarz, A., A Nation in Waiting. Indonesia in the
1990s, Allen Unwin, 1994, p. 46; see also Jackson, K., The Political Implications of Structure and Culture in
Indonesia, in Political Power and Communications, eds. Jackson, K. and L. Pye, p.41
Abeyasekere, S., op. cit., p. 237. Taken from the poem Song of a Bottle Beer by W.S. Rendra, trans. H. Aveling, State of
Emergency, Sydney: Wild and Wolley, 1980, p. 67. Simulacra refer to simulation that is no longer that of a referential
being or substance. It is the generation by models of a real without origin or reality. See Poster, M., Jean Baudrillard:
Selected Writings, Polity, second edition, 2001, p. 169 As quoted in Kellner, D., Jean Budrillard: From Marxism to
Postmodernism and Beyond, Polity Press, 1989, p. 78 In Indonesia public sector is an illusion unless the tax system is
reformed; firstly, because tax system has not yet an effective instrument for government revenue; secondly, the
government is a wealthy sector because it has its various modes business and corporations that are beyond public
control.
Meffesoli calls this social formation as groupism. See M. Maffesoli, The Time of The Tribes. The Decline of
Individualism in Mass society, London, Thousands Oaks, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1996, p, 65, especially
Chapter 3.
McGee, T., ‘The Future of the Asian City: The Emergence of Desakota Regions”, Proceeding International Seminar and
Workshop on the Southeast Asian City of the Future, January 21-25, 1990, Jakarta, Indonesia, pp. 10-19; and
also McGee, T., ‘Urbanization of Kotadesasi ?Evolving Pattern of Urbanization in Asia”, in F.J. Costa et.al. eds..
Urbanization in Asia: Spatial Dimensions and Policy Issues. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989, pp. 93-108.
and Manifestation, Medan, 13
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424 The term Cybercity itself is somewhat controversial since the term
cyber refers to a concept that is not confined to a physical dimension, such as dimensions in space, time,
bureaucracy, country, and institution. Jakarta Cybercity is projected for a dwelling place of some 250,000 residents. In
addition to being a dwelling place, the city will also provides hi-tech hospitals, malls, recreation centres, office spaces,
education centres. The initial 10 hectares of the Cybercentre is planned for the construction of research
centre, software centre, and multimedia centre. Yuliawan, K., Soeryadjaya s Dream, Gatra, Number 20VI, April 1,
2000, http:www.gatra.comenglishVI20LPT5-20.html;
Leonie Sandercock maintains that “[if] city dwelling is in part about the importance of memory and belonging, it is also
about pleasures of anonymity and of not having to belong. These are closely related to desire, to sexual desires and
fantasies.” Sandercock, L., ‘Towards Cosmopolis: Utopia as Construction Site,’ AD Journal, 1998, pp. ii-v.
Detailed publications on coastal cities are lacking as to compare with those of cosmic inland. See Geertz, C., Peddlers and
Princes. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1963.
Wheatley, P. Nagara and Commandery. Origins of the Southeast Asian Urban Traditions, Department of Geography,
Research Paper Nos. 207-208 Double Number, The University of Chicago, 1963, p.5.
Wheatley, p., ¬op. cit., 1963, p.6.
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425
MATERIALIZING ENVIRONMENTALLY ORIENTED CITY
1
I Made Benyamin
2
Abstract
Historically a city generally develops in fertile low land so that it supports an environment for human life. Therefore, many
megapolitan cities are in low area near the coast. The city then develops to become a center for economic activities: production,
commerce, services, center for education, health services, politic, socio-culture, etc. It is estimated that in 2008 more than a half of
world population, namely 3,3 billion people will live in urban area. The number keeps increasing to 5 billion in 2030. This is due to
the flow of urbanization since the city has a strong appeal viewed from various aspects.
The environment potential support of urban area tends to decrease is marked by people force in using the marginal land
into urban area such as very high slope land, river bank, sea shore, rail way side and so on by ignoring the regulations. The
city changes to inhumanistic place, survive in the slums, surface water and ground water and polluted air, traffic jam and many
other inconveniences.. Therefore, implementing the Summit Conference accord on Environment and Development Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, is not only a choice but a need and a must in urban area.
Sustainable development is an integrated process of economic, ecological, and socio-cultural aspects resulting in the
improvement of the people’s welfare continuously. No one of these aspects can be ignored, if we want the environmental
functions work such as environment as a resource supplier, a goods supplier, amenity, and waste assimilator.
The existence of slums in the city is due to a lack behind of social overhead of capital SOC as a responsibility of the
government to directly productive activities DPA. The gap can be overcome when there is a long term development plan which
is transparent, followed consequently from generation to generation of authority in the city. Realizing the backwardness
from developed countries, there are dynamic efforts in developing countries to improve economic activities of the community.
However, the limit is unavoidable, namely optimum economic
1
Paper presented in International Seminar on The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character, and Manifestation, held in Medan on November 13-14, 2007.
2
Lecturer at the School of Economics and Head Study Program of Resource Economics, Graduate Program, Hasanuddin University, Makassar.
and Manifestation, Medan, 13
th
- 14
th
November 2007
426 when a waste graphic curve crosses with environmental
assimilative capacity. When this economic activity is going on, the amount of waste in the environment exceeds the ability of
environment to assimilate the waste. This process will have a negative impact on the functions of environment. To overcome
the problem, the urban area has to reduce the quantity and quality of waste get into the environment. On the other hand,
there must be an effort to improve the assimilative capacity of environment, for instance, city greening to reduce the air
pollution.
Poverty in urban area is closely related to various aspects of environment, criminality, social unrest, etc. Therefore, the
framework of Millennium Development Goals – Based Poverty
Reduction Strategy must be a priority in urban area. The poverty problem must be a serious attention. The problems are due to the
unavailability of job opportunity, unprepared infrastructures, settlement,
and public
service. Ignoring
the migration
phenomenon means ignoring the needs for cheap houses for poor population resulting in the mushrooming of slums.