CONCLUSIONS  Proceedings International Seminar The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character, and Manifestation

and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 363 2. Understanding the kampong reality as an endogen force which forms urbanism in Indonesia, and 3. Understanding modernization not as a westernization but as an acculturative process between local and foreign values.  Kampong’s roles as a character giver Kampong has a unique spatial configuration and different from other city parts. The uniqueness makes kampong has a character and even plays a role in building the city character. Ways to understand kampong as a city physical character builder are as follows: 1. By understanding a kampong and a city as one genre. Both of them are artifacts. A city is a more complex one which consists of lots of parts. A whole city character can only be explained by recognizing parts of the city’s characters. Kampong is an artifact which consists of simpler buildings which are not monumental. 2. By searching for the area’s character structure. It is difficult to understand by its various attributes. The structure can be represented by a space configuration. 3. By distinguishing the kampong and city configuration. The difference is the main prerequisite to understand the characters. A character cannot be noticed without comparing.  The quality of the spatial linkages between the kampong and city blocks The quality is determined by the permeability of the framing. Physically, it is formed by the kampong entrance roads. It is said to be a membrane in osmosis process. The flow through the membrane is not the same. The kampong informality flows greater to the city rather than the city formality to the kampong. Therefore, it can be concluded that kampong plays a role in urbanity forming in Indonesia. The quality of the spatial connection is determi ned by the quality of the system’s elements which consist of four parts, i.e.: [1] outer parts urban blocks, [2] frames, [3] connection paths, and [4] inner parts kampongs. REFERENCES: Balbo, Marcello 1993, “Urban Planning and the Fragmented City of Developing Countries”, Third World Planning Review, vol. 115, hal. 23-35. Colquhoun, A. 1989 Modernity and the Classical Tradition: Architectural Essay 1980-1987. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Dovey, Kim 1999, Framing Places: Mediating power in built form, London: Routledge. Drakakis-Smith, David 1981, Urbanization, Housing and Development, London: coom Helm. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 364 Gans, H.J. 1962, The Urban Villagers, New York: Free Press. Harvey, D. 1985, Consciousness and the Urban Experience: Studies in the History and Theory of Capitalist Urbanization. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Haryadi 1989, Residents’ Strategies for Coping with Environmental Press: Relation to House-Settlement Systems in a Yogyakarta Kampung, Indonesia, Unpublished Dissertation, The University of Wisconsin. Jellinek, Lea 1998, “Jakartan Kampungs under Siege”, dalam Freestone, R., The Twentieth Century Urban Planning Experience, Proceedings, The University of New South Wales. Kimaryo, Jacob L. 1996, Urban Design and Space Use: a case study of Dar es Salaam City Centre, Lund: Department of Building Functions Analysis, School of Architecture – Lund University Lang, Jon 1987, Creating Architectural Theory, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Rostow, W. 1971, The Stages of Economic Growth, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Siregar, A.S. 1990, Bandung-The Architecture of a City in Development: Urban Analysis of a Regional Capital as a Contribution to the Present Debate on Indonesian Urbanity and Architectural Identity, PhD. Dissertation, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Tjondrosugianto, Parwoto 1981, Housing Arrangement for Low Income Urban Families, unpublished Master Thesis, Institute of Social Studies – the Hague. Trancik, R., 1986, Finding Lost Space, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. In te rn a tio n al S e m in a r: Th e K n ow le dg e C it y: S p ir it , C h a ra ct e r, a n d M a n if e st a tio n , M e da n , 1 3 th - 14 th N ov e m b e r 200 7 365 Ganggerbang KAMPUNG [PART] bingk KOTA [THE WHOLE] Ganggerbang Ganggerbang KAMPUNG [PART] KAMPUNG [PART] KAMPUNG [PART] Figure 2.: Part to Whole Relation KOTA [THE WHOLE] KAMPU NG welfare paradigm economic paradigm h. resource community lost comm. transformed community saved evolution paradigm conflict paradigm acculturation paradigm Physical Reality Social Reality Theory of Social Changel and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 366 GATED COMMUNITY AS A SOCIAL SEGREGATION IN HOUSING ESTATE IN MEDAN Dwira Nirfalini Aulia Magister Architecture of Engineering, School of Postgraduate Study, University of Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia Abstract The rising trend of gated community is happening in almost all over big cities in the world, include in Indonesia’s big cities such as Medan. Gated communities are perceived to provide better security and an assurance of safety. Besides of that, it is also a symbol of prestige and clustering the life style. It is obvious that the city planner will see a trend living in gated community, so it is important to study the social interaction in the housing estate and neighbourhood area around the estate include its impact to the city planning. The research is doing in two oldest housing estate in Medan city which are Taman Setia Budi Indah and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai. Primary data will be analyze base on the back ground of gated community by Blakely and Snyder, 2002. They said, there are three reasons of established the gated community which are : security, prestige and life style. Keywords: gated community, social segregation, housing estate Introduction The housing estate in a city is formed based by social attribute of a community. This condition happens in many cities in developing countries which are developing quickly. Housing estate segregation can be seen as a product from imbalanced income or ethnic which become the characteristic of community concentration in a city. For example, people with middle or lower income will live in unorganized housing estates and people with higher income will live in an organized housing estate. The existence of gated community in Indonesia is formed first by ethnic similarity Stoyanov, 2004 like Kampung Bali, Kampung Arab, Kampung Cina etc. Then in early 70’s, marked by government effort to motivate private company involved in housing is making the second type of gated community formed. However, organized housing development by developer cannot be separated with the other housing estate. The new organized housing estate is often become exclusive among other housing estate. Other than making social conflict between these two and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 367 housing estates, the room pattern formed in Indonesia cities is a combination that shows the organized and unorganized housing estate. Syaukat, 2005 The gated community housing is directly giving trouble to both city planner and government as the city organizer Winarso, 2005 . This research is to examine gated community housing in Medan by studying two cases of gated community housing that has been formed earlier in Medan which are Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai. This research report will be divided into four sections which are literature review, research methodology, analysis, and research result ended by discussion and suggestion. Literature Review Gated community is a closed housing area where the public room is legally privatized. Gated community limited access is usually run by occupant association who arrange and run the rules Roitman, 2005; Thuillier, 2005; Atkinson, 2005. Following Blakely Snyder, 1999 , the community concept is describing the intensity of general value which is expressed by someplace by its occupants. Based by the concept above, there are three clasification category of gated community and each category has it own different reason of community forming and the function of gate in each category Wu, 2005 . The three categories are: 1. Lifestyle community, is a community with a collection of same interest. The gate function is to clarify the division of general facility in the area and general facility outside the area 2. Prestige community, is a community formed as a result of social differentation. The gate function is as a sign of environment quality 3. Security zone community, is a community formed as a reaction of lackness of security. The gate function is more to the practcal function which is to get secure feeling. Gated community is typically located in suburban area, even the area in the city is developing the same development Grant Jill, 2005 and there are tendency that the community is occupied by homogenic social class which are middle or higher social class. Theoretically, there are three arguments on gated community which areLe Goix,2005 : 1. Gated community as a physical form and real expression from social alteration after industrial revolution fragmentation, individuality and increasing community. 2. Gated community as an indication city trouble like social classification as an example and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 368 3. Apearrance of eleite private community is in contradictionwith prosperity distribution system with a result of giving assumption that public service is not efficient Gated community background Leisch, 2002 says that there are many things that makes gated community appears and develop rapidly in Southeast Asia which are:  Many gated community in Southeast Asia shows the combination of socio-economic, culture and security backgrounds  In a colonial cities in Southeast Asia, residential area is always divided foloowing the ethnics which are: European community, native population and those two are divided by Chinese population  Gated community in southeast asia can be seen as a combination of social needs, security and investment However Grant, 2004; Atkinson Blandy, 2005 observed that why gated community is developing from the housing profit to each city stakeholder:  Housing consumer This housing type is a reflection of critics to modern city life because lack of safeness and then popularized by public media. Life in gated community is giving sense of identity of community that has strong attractiveness especially for the proper people  Developer Gated community is relatively medium investment and can increase the project value that has limited housing facility  Government Gated community is giving better tax income while the government is responsible in making public faculty that has been supplied by developer Gated Community characteristics Based by Irazabal, 2006 who said that gated community characteristic is the concentration of the occupants which divide the social difference which is important for their identity. Especially in housing area that has local public faculty for the occupants with different lifestyles. That place is becoming a symbol from the occupant’s social identityThat place is tend to be occupied by a community with homogenic class which are mostly middle or higher class. Blakely Snyder, 1995 identifies gated community in America, which are: 1. Lifestyle community. This type is first appeared created by developers to increase people’s consumerism for recreation and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 369 and comfortness. This Community group is consists by three type: older family community retired, Golf club and recreation community and new city. New city is housing development in large scale with a purpose to create perfect comfortable life for the occupants with comprehensive environment facility. 2. Prestige community. This type is generally based by status and economic classes. This community is created by the occupants itself unlike the lifestyle community. The environment facility in it is not comprehensive like the lifestyle community. This community is consist of three types which are: community of high income and famous, community of middle or higher income worker class and professional community or middle class. In this community, prestige and image is an important thing. Other than that, privacy and security is considered later by occupants. 3. Security zone community. This community build fences and gate as a security mechanism. Occupants change housing environment into gated community by closing all access and hired security officers. This type is not only occupied by middle or higher income community but also middle or lower income community and public housing. The housing for middle income community in suburban area and small cities changed into gated community Gated community influence and implication for city planning Thuillier, 2005 who did the research about gated community influence in Buenos Aires, Argentina said that the development of gated community has important social consequences because it change distribution from social community in city spaces and create new form from the relation between both of them. Mc Kenzie, 2005 said that the appearance of housing management privatization is making the appearance of two community class which are middle or higher income community and middle or lower income community. The appearance of gated community is making a dillema for city planner because it helps to find planner objective needs in planning housing development with higher density. But in other side, this social segregation is against the good planning principle like: making inhabitants integration and continuity and fairness in service. Gated community is influencing not only everyday activity pattern but also the city form and function. Landman, 2000 . Long term snowball effect will make negative influence in city continuity in things like spatial arrangement in the same manner as effective and functioning arrangement in city environment. Othr and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 370 than that, privatization also has conflict potency between occupants and government in managing housing area. Research Methodology The purpose of this research is to see if gated community in Medan is making social segregation more distinct which is happening in big cities in Indonesia and observe the implication of gated community to the development of the environment around it. Hun, 2002. Religion, social status, culture and geographic origin are always the reason to social segregation in Indonesia. But what is the reason of the bordering wall existence? Leisch, 2002. Research is conducted by gathering primary data and secondary data. Primary data is giving questionaire to both occupant of gated community and people around gated community. The question is mainly about the condition and the situation of gated community and the influence to social interaction that happens in the housing and people around the housing. Secondary data is data of housing area development spatially before and after the gated community exist in that area. Secondary data is analyzed by observing gated community existence toward area development spatially. Area Observation Criteria for choosing the location are housing with the size of 300 head of family to observe the completion of housing support facility and social interaction that happens inside and outside around the estate. These gated community are old enough to observe the implication of gated community existence toward the environment area around it. Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah is a housing area that included as the first elite housing in Medan. Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah is located in Kelurahan Tanjung Rejo between Kecamatan Medan Sunggal and Medan Selayang in Medan. Right now the Taman Setiabudi Indah area is consist by three sub area which are Taman Setiabudi Indah Area I, Taman Setiabudi Indah Area II and Bukit Hijau Regency. This housing is developed phase by phase, which is started by phase 1 in year 1984 by opening housing area with 46 hectares wide then in 1985 it increased into 60 hectares and in 1987 the housing reach 160 hectares which is called Taman Setiabudi Indah phase I and Kawasan Eksklusif Bukit Hijau Regncy BHR. The next development is the additional development of Taman Setiabudi Indah II 40 hectares wide. Until now the total area of Taman Setiabudi Indah is reaching 200 hectares. Total houses built and occupied is around 3000 unit with with the total of occupant is and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 371 around 15000 inhabitants. With the development of this housing, it becomes the activity generator on Southern part of Medan WPP E and the development of other planned housing in Medan all at onceSyaukani, 2004. Figure 1. Taman Setia Budi Indah Perumahan Johor Indah Permai Perumahan Johor Indahis developed between 1982 – 1998. Development is done by 2 phase which are Johor Indah Permai I and Johor Indah Permai II. These phases of development has been physically bordered with fences and located beside each other. However the general facilities are used together. Facilities available are quite comprehensive like sport field, health clinic, small stores and religious building. Total and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 372 of housees are 682 units with high occupation level which are 92. Near the area there are school from elementary school to the senior high school which are SD, SMP, and SMU Harapan III which are the education facility for Medan Johor area. This estate is the first eastate being developed in Jalan Karya Jasa. After this estate growth to the phase II, some estates are appears in Jalan Karya Jasa such as Perumahan Citra Wisata, Perumahan Karyawan and so on. Figure 2. Perumahan Johor Indah Permai Analysis and Research Discovery Perumahan Johor Indah Permai In 1985, PT. FUJI AGUNG UTAMA which move in propety becomes the developer in a housing development in Jalan Karya Wisata area. This housing is named PERUMAHAN JOHOR INDAH PERMAI. This housing is occupying area approximately 10.5 hectares widein first phase of development and approximately 8.6 hectares in the second phase. The total are approximately 19.1 hectares. Total of building units are 682 units. House type consist by five types which are : Type 36, Type 45, Type 54, Type 100 and Type 120. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 373 Social interaction that happens in Johor Indah Permai complex are mostly done periodically through: 1. Religious activity, usually once in two weeks 2. Social gathering 3. Sport usually in the early evening or holiday 4. Interaction on holiday while walking around the house The place where the occupants dong their social activity are: 1. Mosque 2. Sport field 3. Streets 4. House 5. Children’s playground The inhabitants in Johor Indah Permai are mostly newcomer. This is known by survey result and data about inhabitant’s ethnics which are Malayan, Bataknese, Nias, Minangkabau, and Javanese. But from many kinds of culture and customs, there are no problems until now. So, culture and customs does not influence the form, room formation and the functions. According to gated community characteristics Blakely Snyder, 1997 , then Perumahan Johor Indah Permai is included into gated community and the type is security zone community. The majority of inhabitants answered that security is their first criteria to choose their housing location there. The majority of inhabitants are middle income people with profession as private industrialist and professional people. Housing security system is managed by the developer cooperated with inhabitants. Social interaction happens periodically between occupants in the housing. Social interactions to neighboring people are quite high. It can be seen from since the housing is developed, there are commercial area appeared in the area around it, with the result that this housing has become activity generator in Jalan Karya Wisata area, then followed by the development of another housing complex along Jalan Karya Wisata. Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah Perumahan Taman Setiabudi Indah complex is the biggest housing complex with 1425 units of house in Medan Selayang area. With entrance access from Setia Budi Street, which are one of the main street in area WPP E Medan, which makes the occupation level in this housing complex is quite high compared to other housing complex. In field observation, social interaction activity happens mostly on open area in the housing complex. Activities happens mostly in the early evening when the occupants arrived from workplace or school and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 374 The most crowded activity centres are  Sport field  Marketplace  Playground  Entrance access of the housing complex Social interactions which are done periodically by housing inhabitants are:  Once a week Tai Chi on Sunday morning  Qur’an recital once a month in each housing location  Social gathering in a smaller inhabitant’s housing community each block According to the gated community characteristics Blakely Snyder, 1997 , Perumahan Taman Setiabudi Indah is a gated community with combination of prestige community and security zone community. In the core of the complex is built house clusters Perumahan Bukit Hijau which is fenced and gated as a sign of prestige community. The inhabitants in this housing is not quite interacted with the with the community around them but the existence of this housing open a work field to people around by working as household helper. Social segregation between Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah with people around it is clearly visible. The existence of this housing toward the environment around is giving positive implication. This can be seen by the development of other housing in Medan Selayang area, Setia Budi road expansion, and completion of ring roadway in Medan. n ah ate ah Figure 3. Frequency of social interaction Figure 4. Relative in housing estate Analyzing primary data by compared between these two housing estates, the result shows that relationship in the neighborhood is more closely in Perumahan Johor Indah Permai. 55.5 of the resident are periodically doing activities together such as : sports, Qur’an recital and arisan. In Taman Setia Budi Indah, resident’s background are from higher income level, so and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 375 that the social interaction are less closely. The pull factor of the resident choose their neighborhood is the relative who stay in the estate. The result shows that 32.1 of the Perumahan Johor Indah resident choose to stay in the estate because of a lot of relative also stay there. Research Discovery From the research output we can summarize the discovery related with social segregation that happens:  Although the fence and gate looks intimidating, in gated community however, outsider is not prevented to pass the gate. Even the facility in the complex can be used by outsiders as long as the housing manager can control the security. This policy attracts people to live in gated community Grant, 2004 .  Social interaction in gated community is well enough between inhabitants. This happens when there are activities that connect them like social gathering, religious gathering and sport activity.  Segregation that happens between community and people outside community around them will not make horizontal conflict as long as each side can used each other existence. This condition also happens in Syaukat, 2005 research in Perumahan Taman Yasmin in Bogor city  Organizing gated community housing area with the owned facility has its own life space apart from the community around it and giving their own impact toward internal structure of the area. But the impact doesn’t have negative social effect as long as the gated community supporting facility still can be used by people around and does not prevent the facility usage exclusively. Gated community implications toward the development of the area around it are:  Gated community has implication to transportation network inside the housing complex because of transportation network management responsibility transfer from city government to housing management developer. It needs government response from government toward the development of gated community housing visually. Response by giving KASIBA Kawasan Siap Bangun and LISIBA Lingkungan Siap Bangun are one of the positive action from government  Gated community can provide more space for people by creating a compact form of a city. This condition is based by concept of multi function design in a housing area and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 376  A great design orientation, green open area quality design which is used in gated community could become good implication toward city room formation around  Gated community is influencing not only everyday activity pattern but also city form and function Discussion and suggestion According to Williams, 2005 , there are three factors that influencing social interaction in a housing area. The first one is personal factors include personality, personal dynamic, and behavior influenced by human background. In gated community, homogenic occupant’s background will make the social interaction in the housing area is high but for social interaction toward people outside the housing area is not positive depending from what kind of social interaction is happening and the differences of personal factor is happening. The second one is social informal factors which include relation between one individual to another individual or community and sources that enables for an individual to inflence their social interaction with others example: financial source, time source and health source. Social interaction that happens between Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah which make a work field opportunity for people around it and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai which make commercial and trade activity to the people around it developed. The third one is social formal consist by organization and structural policy decission making process, social structures and organization activity. The existence of Perumahan Taman Setia Budi Indah and Perumahan Johor Indah Permai is making positive growth and development of city zone especially in Medan Selayang and Medan Johor area. Area development is then followed by inhabitants growth, increase of economic activity in related area. This development is influencing the city management and policy maker to develop this area into new settlements area. From the discussion above, social segregation that is happening in gated community is not always making a negative implication toward the concept of ideal city planning. But the differences and segregation that happens can combine well if it can be manage positively. However in one side privatization has potential to create and strengthen the responsibility distributionof of general facility and housing infrastructure managementbetween occupants and local government especially in managing housing supporting facility so that this condition needs special rule from local government. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 377 References Atkinson, Rowland; Blandy ,Sarah 2005 Introduction : International perspectives on the new enclaves and the rise of gated community, Housing Studies, 20 2 :177 - 186 . Blakely E.J Snyder 2002, “Fortress America – Gated Communities in the United States”, 2 nd edition, Brooking Institution Press, Washington. Grant, Jill 2002 Mixed use in theory and practice, Canadian experience with implementing a planning principle, Journal of the American Planning Association, 68 1 : 71 - 84 Grant, Jill 2004 The planning and policy implications of gated community, Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 13:1 : 70 – 88. Grant, Jill 2005 Planning Responses to Gated Communities in Canada, Housing Studies, 202 : 273 – 285. Hun, Kim Jee 2002 Research Notes on the making of gated community : a study of an inner city neighbourhood, Jakarta Indonesia, AJSS, 30:1 : 97 – 108. Irazabal, Clara 2006 Localizing urban design traditions : gated and edge cities in Curitiba, Journal of Urban Design 11 1 : 73 – 96. Landman, Karina 2000 Gated communities and urban sustainability : taking a closer look at the future, Proceedings Strategies for a sustainable built environment, Pretoria, 23 – 25 August 2000. Le Goix, Renaud 2005 Gated Communities : Sprawl and social segregation in Southern California, Housing Studies, 20 2 : 323 – 343. Leisch ,Harald 2002, Gated Communities in Indonesia, Cities, 195 : 341-350. Mc Kenzie, Evan 2005 Constructing the Pomerium in Las vegas : A case study of emerging trends in American gated community, Housing Studies, 202 : 187 – 203. Roitman, Sonia 2005 Who segregates whom ? The analysis of a Gated Community in Mendoza, Argentina, Housing Studies, 20 2 : 303 – 321. Syaukani, Achmad 2004, Kajian Pengaruh Permukiman Housing Estate terhadap tingkat pelayanan jalan, Studi Kasus : Perumahan Taman Setiabudi Indah Medan, Tesis Program Pasca Sarjana Universitas Sumatera Utara. Syaukat 2005 , Masyarakat Tergerbang, Kajian Pengembangan Perkotaan Program Pascasarjana Universitas Indonesia. Thuillier, Guy 2005 Gated Communities in the metropolitan area of Buenos Aires, Argentina : A challenge for town planning, Housing Studies, 20 2 : 255 – 271. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 378 Williams, Jo 2005 Designing neighbourhoods for social interaction : the case of cohousing, Journal of Urban Design, 10 2 : 195 – 227 Winarso, Haryo 2005 City for the rich, paper presented at the 8 th International Conference of the Asian Planning Schools Association 11 – 14 th September 2005, Penang Malaysia Wu, Fulong 2005 Rediscovering the ‘Gate’ under market transition : from work-unit compounds to commodity housing enclaves, Housing Studies, 2 2 : 235-254. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 379 TRADITIONAL FORT OF KERATON YOGYAKARTA AND SACRED AXIS INFLUENCED SOCIAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN COLONIAL AND MODERN PERIOD Gerarda Orbita Ida Cahyandari Department of Architecture, Engineering Faculty, Atma Jaya Yogyakarta University Corresponding authors: idachmail.uajy.ac.id Abstract Keraton Yogyakarta had its owned teritory inside the fortification. North and South axis is the sacred axis for the Javanese people. These aspects influeced development of the city. Social and cultural developments took place inside and outside the fort according to periods of city development. There were four periods of city development i.e. tradisional period, Indische period, colonial period, and modern period. Each period had its civilization characteristics. Javanese, Dutch, and Chinese held cultural background in the city. Intepretive-historical method tries to explore that there were zone territories reflected from building appearance in the peripheries of the fort to accomodate socio-political aspects in every period. Meaning and identity in the core of Place Theory could be found in the historical precedent of the peripheries. Intra and extra muros paths had position as structural form linkage theory to show development pattern by using functional categories, periods, and symbolic expressions. Functional categories are spiritual force, temporal power, and economic energy. Historic precedent is used to assume building function and establishment. Historic precedent could also be accompanied by contextual phenomenon to support quantitative data. Location and building function in the peripheries are analyzed based on field study and maps in 1900 and 1925. The 25-year duration is determined by historic precedent of building architectural character in every group year. Traditional pattern of urban structure, axial organic, and compositional form, had role to form urban development pattern. Social and cultural acculturation is happened in the area around traditional territory i.e. the fort. Acculturation between Javanese- Colonial and Chinese-Colonial functioned as political approach by using build environment to less the power of fort and sacred axis. Social and political influence could be seen in different category and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 380 between field data and map study. The differences are used to indicate culture acculturation of Colonial, Chinese, and Javanese. Keywords: acculturation, city developments, fortification, sacred axis, socio-political aspects. INTRODUCTION Yogyakarta is traditional and noble city. It has cosmological and sacred axis, complete the presence of energy in the traditional city. The fort and the axis formed the territory to enclose Sultan authority. The specific character of Yogyakarta in colonial period was powerful existance of Kraton palace to control urban space dan community, but in the same way controlled by colonial power. 1 Kraton is centre of the axis and center of Sultan’s power. Sultan had a very important position. The fort bordered the first city of Yogyakarta. Sultan had authority inside and outside fort intra and extra muros. Districts at edges of the fort were affected by sacred axis. The fort and the authority could form social and political responsive by means of building simbolic expression. Socio- political transformation in community settlement was designated with building appearance in accommodating activity and symbolic communication. Building appearance could indicate sosio-cultural influence and acculturation, more over socio-political policy in the community at that time. Research area was in the periphery of Kraton fort. Buildings data were represented by their exterior expression of multicultural element in Javanese, Dutch, Chinese, and Islamic in the period 17- 20 centuries. This research implemented historic- interpretive method by means of building mapping dan visual documentation. Interpretation of the objects compared with historical data and moments of importance. The result of analisys can be part of recommendation and consideration to urban design and urban planning policy in conserving local value and history. 1 Surjomihardjo 2000, p.11. Yogyakarta menarik untuk dikaji, karena dalam perkembangannya, kota ini pada mulanya merupakan kota kraton di pedalaman yang diawasi pemerintah kolonial sehingga dua kekuatan kepentingan, yaitu kekuatan tradisional dan kekuatan kolonial, bertemu di dalamnya. Kurun waktu yang dipilih, masa akhir abad ke-19 sampai awal abad ke-20, berkaitan erat dengan proses “pasifikasi Hindia Belanda” dan makin mendalaminya pengaruh politik dan ekonomi kolonial ke daerah pedalaman di Jawa. Suatu proses yang menimbulkan perubahan dan pembauran. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 381 THE SACRED AXIS AND THE TRADITIONAL FORT Sacred axis of Yogyakarta connected the major points in Javanese cosmology. Axis between north and south, had points of meaning at Merapi-Tugu Pal Putih-Kraton-Panggung Krapyak- Laut Selatan. This sacred axis holds the centre of reference for urban design since traditional era until now. Inside and outside paths of the fort passed through gates called plengkung. According to historic documentation, there were 5 plengkungs at the fort, namely plengkung Wijilan, Plengkung Ngasem, Plengkung Joyoboyo, Plengkung Tamansari, Plengkung Gading, dan plengkung Gondomanan. But now there are only 4 plengkung, yaitu Wijilan, Ngasem, Tamansari, dan Gading. The plengkung could have important position as origin and destination related to urban development. The traditional territory was defined by the palace, the plengkungs, and the fortification. Plengkung Wijilan Plengkung Gondomanan Plengkung Tamansari Plengkung Ngasem Plengkung Gading Dutch housing Dutch housing Vredeburg Loji Besar Market Loji Kebon Church Photo 1. Map of Kraton Fortification and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 382 THE INFLUENCES IN CITY DEVELOPMENT AND ARCHITECTURE It seems to be rather difficult to discover some order in the theoretical perspectives used in Indonesian urban studies. 2 Town have definitions, i.e.: 1. the town as a man-made material environment 2. a centre of production 3. a social community 4. a cultural community 5. a controlled society The town can be defined in the first place as man-made material environment. This formulation directs the analysis to the morpholocial aspect and covers the architectonic, spatial and environmental ordering in relation to the socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. The town can also be defined as a centre of production. This opens a broad perpective on the organization of production on the one hand and regional and international relations on the other hand. The definition of the town as social community is rooted in a systems approach. It can be in functionalism or conflict theory. The perspective of the town as a cultural community directs attention to the way people manage to carry on in the town, their perception of the urban environment, their ways of living, subcultures, acculturation of various cultures and the structure of cognitive systems. The town is managed by a system of local authorities. Definition of town can be understood as an approach to analyze acculturation process. It is important to understand four development in Indonesia cities, i.e.: 1. early Indonesian town 2. Indische town 3. colonial town 4. modern town In The Image of the City, urban character can be analyzed in three factors, i.e. Identity, Structure,and Meaning. Indonesia cities had mainly similar figure with composition of palace, square, market, port, and fort. Traditional town had structure based on cosmological and socio-cultural background. The figures of noble city were circular compotition with hierarchy from centre to periphery. Indische town was the first influenced town of colonial authority in Indonesia. Modern town had transitional process from western modernisme to independence condition. 2 Nas 1986, p.14 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 383 Space itself can assume strongly marked attributes. 3 Urban space can be defined by means of building relation, scale, space geometry, and building characters. Location, function, and period of building expression can be considered to find socio- political influence in building development at fort perphery. In the colonial period, there were social stratification that dominantly influenced cultural background, namely: Javanese Moslem, Dutch, and Chinese. Chinese Influence Chinese living district is called Pecinan or China Town. Chinese had history in relation to Javanese noble, Sultan Hamengkubuwana I. One of His soldiers was Tan Jin Sing, with his honourable mention as Secodiningrat. Secodinigrat Dalem was demolished and turn to Bank Indonesia. Chinese influence expanded with the origins in north and south of Kraton. Rumah toko or shop houses were the perfect solution to accommodate economic and domestic aspect. They expressed acculturation process with building, function, and personality. Chinese architecture adapted with tropical architecture. The results of adaptation were high ceilings, ventilations, openings, high gable walls and long roof to reduce radiation and glare. The weight of the roof, with its projecting eaves, is transferred to the wall by sets of wooden brackets. The houses had narrow width and long in longitudinal axis. There was a terrace in the two-story façade. Simple façade was related to function of house and comercial. This condition was different to the luxorious style of KLenteng in detail and colour. The first location was in the eastern side of the fort, where klentheng was. Dutch shop houses were similar to Chinese shop houses in their steep roof. Islam Influence As a part of Mataram Islam in the last period, Kraton Yogyakarta had employee to serve religious division, called kepenguluan. They lived near Masjid Agung, an area provided by Sultan Hamengku Buwono I. This place then was called pakauman or qoimuddin or kauman. Kauman had wide area, bordered by Kraton and colonial complex. The paths in the district are very close and secured with 1 meter wide connecting houses. Social interrelation was strongly close and maintains the solidity in the same background of Moslem society. 3 Design of Cities, p.17 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 384 Islamic architecture came to Indonesia in 14-15 centuries with adaptability to the last condition. There were characteristic in the firstly period of Islam, namely tumpang roof imposed roof, splitted gate, gate with door frame, clay material figures on top of the roof. There was even ornament of two splitted wings in the gate. Islamic ornament never used animal or living symbol. Khaligrafic carving took place at walls inside and outside house, dome, and ceilings. Plant ornament emphasized to estetic function. Geometric form was used in polygonal repetition, like stars, circle, etc. Colonial Influence The Kota Yogyakarta 1880-1930: Sejarah Perkembangan Sosial was explained that aristocratic people of Yogyakarta conceived adaptability process to colonial situation. In this process, cultural contact was happened between traditional power and colonial power. Colonial condition was included: 1. People were involved in economic and political domination by foreign minority. 2. Foreign minority was possibly had control over bumiputera majority. 3. Industrial civilization had contact and conflict to pre-industrial society. 4. Difficult situation between two civilizations made the subservient role to which the colonial people are subjected as instruments of the colonial power. 4 Urban space became a responsible space for interaction, development, and stressing another status. Urban planning in colonial period reflected Nederland cities in 16-17 centuries. Old cities of Nederland were located with fort and moat, connected outside by gates. There were four functions, namely spiritual force, temporal power, and economic energ y, and symbolic expression. Religious building, nobleman’s palace, market, and square were typology of building that forming the urban space. Housing in colonial cities in 17-18 century are similar to Dutch building. The characteristics are:  Long houses  narrow 20 m width 110 m long  steep roof  façade with two level  few openings for ventilation 4 Ibid, p.2 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 385  roof in long form and big in steep roof close to Chinese buildings Indisch style developed later. This house had wide yard. It was usually owned by dutch who married Indonesian woman. In the 19 century, there was evocation to appreciate local architecture. Building design adapted to local style with permanently using Europe style. Hindian influences were Indonesia and Cina. There are verandah and parallel rooms next to each other. Shop houses with verandah reflected acculturation between Chinese, Dutch, and Indonesian architecture. Policy of elimination Rodi in 1870 evoked establishment of private bureau and business. With the process of storing, production, and distribution, there were new types of buildings to facilitate new needs. In 1920-1930, there were combination of local architecture and modern principles of architecture. In these years colonial housing had new expression with single house, one story house, with clay as roof material, plastered walls, and jati window. This house was constructed on the plinth of stone. The second type was two stories building with garage and pavilion. HISTORIC INTERPRETIVE Fort in the Palace Periphery was as border of authority teritory. It determined urban identity in Indische and Colonial periods. Intra and extra muros had role in structuring identity and meaning. Fort had east, west, north, and south side. Plengkungs were principle points to define the mapping of buildings. Plengkungs is the identity of a district. The analisys was also starting from these points. Network of circulation in the means of paths, inside and outside the fort, were indication of urban development direction with reference to the sacred axis and plengkungs. Historic precedence was used to assume building functions and year of establishment. The categorial data also considered contextual phenomenon when buildings were constructed, for instance Muhammadiyah movement and political situation. Building characters were grouping in every 25 years period. Archives of building establishment supported the definition of year and building characters. Field observation also helped configuration of data, for instance information by interview or year establishment carved at the wall. Historic maps of Yogyakarta could be traced to compare the existence of buildings. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 386 Table 1. Year Periodically Assumption of Building Appearace and Function Berjajar min. 3 rumah Satu rumah 1850-1875 Traditional Period House: steep and long roof colonial building similar to Chinese building narrow width about 20 m and long in longitudinal axis façade with two level front terrace, few openings 1875-1900 Indische Period House: large house with wide yard Alternative function: education, church 1900-1925 Colonial Period House: Hindian style, with Europe and Chinese elements Open terrace Alternative function: government, shophouses 1925 Modern Period House: One story house: simple, stone basement or platform Two stories: added with garage and pavilion Alternative function: government, culture, Islamic style and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 387 Figure 1. Sacred Axis Javanese-Colonial Chinese-Colonial Javanese-Islamic Data and analisys explained that: 1. Acculturation predominantly went on periphery attach directly to the fort. Although there were extra muros paths parallel to the fort, acculturation did not directly open in the building appearance. 2. There were efforts for emerging building characters in precious period. Building character in 1900 emerged in modern period 1900. 3. Javanese and colonial acculturation is in south, west, and north of the fort and in the Islamic area. The periode of emerging was 1925. Chinese and colonial acculturation is in east, west, and north of the fort. The periode of emerging were 1900-1925 dan 1925. Urban development had structural periods, namely traditional city, indische city, colonial city, and modern city. Traditional city had palace as centre and fort as border of territory. Indische city indicated Chinese district development with commercial function, spiritual force, and housing. Otherwise, there was colonial district with spiritual force dan temporal force function. Temporal function was related to governmental authority. In colonial city, there were spiritual force, economic energy, and housing and Chinese district. Modern city had colonial district with economic energy and housing and Muslim district. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 388 Colonial district and chinese district Indische city. Function: temporal force, economic energy Chinese district Indische city Function: spiritual force, economic energy Distrik Muslim bagian dari kota Kolonial. Peran : spiritual force, pemukiman Colonial district Indische city. Function: temporal force, spiritual force Colonial district Indische city Function: temporal force Colonial district colonial city. Function: spiritual force, economic energy Colonial district modern city Function: economic energy, housing Kraton Traditional Traditional Traditional Traditional Traditional Tradisional Colonial district Modern city Function: economic energy, housing Colonial district Modern city Function: economic energy, housing Colonial district Modern city. Function: economic energy, housing Colonial district Modern city Function: economic energy, housing Colonial district Modern city Function: economic energy, housing Colonial district and urban kampong Modern city. Function: economic energy, housing Traditional Figure 2. Mapping of Location and Function Indische city was previously process to colonial city, so that development of spiritual and economic function encreased. Building periods indicated development of building starting from the east-west axis with Chinese district shophouses to east side of the fort. So there was a imagenary axis to interfere power of the sacred axis. CONCLUSION Colonial goverment confined Chinese district and Islamic district. Chinese district was adaptable with its economic function. Islamic district was religious basic and emerged in modern city. Socio-cultural acculturation and socio-political influence went on area that close to radiiotnal territory. Javanese-colonial and Chinese-colonial acculturation proved socio-political influence in socio-cultural elements. The acculturation is a policy to reduce power of the sacred axis and power of the fort. REFERENCES ----------,Karaton Ngayogyakarta, Yogyakarta Potensi Wisata. Broadbent, Geoffrey. 1980. Design in Architecture. Surrey, England: John Wiley Sons Ltd. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 389 Groat, Linda, David Wang. 2002. Architectural Research Methods. New York: John wiley Sons, Inc. Halim, Deddy. 2005. Psikologi Arsitektur. Jakarta: Grasindo. Hamilton, Peter Penyunting. 1989 The Symbolic Construction of Community. New York: Routledge. Lynch, Kevin. 1992. The Image of the City. Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Mann, A.T. 1993. Sacred Architecture. Brisbane: Element. Mann, Richard. 1998. The Old City of Jakarta – Today. Jakarta: Gateway Books. Markus, T.A., P.Whyman, J.Morgan, D.Whitton, T.Maver, D.canter, J.Flemimg. 1972. Building Performance. London: Applied Science Publishers Ltd. Nas, Peter J.M. 1986. The Indonesian City “Studies in Urban Development and Planning”. Dordrecht, Holland: Foris Publications. Rivai, M.A. 1995. Pegangan Gaya Penulisan, Penyuntingan, dan Penerbitan Karya Ilmiah Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. Sadilah, Emiliana et al. 19911992. Kesadaran Budaya tentang Ruang pada Masyarakat di DIY Suatu Studi mengenai Proses Adaptasi Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Dir.Jen. Kebudayaan Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional, Proyek Inventarisasi dan Pembinaan Nilai-nilai Budaya. Sumalyo, Yulianto. 1995. Arsitektur Kolonial Belanda di Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. Surjomihardjo, Abdurrachman. April 2000. Kota Yogyakarta 1880-1930: Sejarah Perkembangan Sosial. Yogyakarta: Yayasan untuk Indonesia. Suryabrata, Sumadi. 1983. Metodologi Penelitian. Jakarta: CV. Rajawali. Tjahjono, Gunawan Penyusun. 1999. Indonesian Heritage: Arsitektur. Singapore: Periplus. Trancik, Roger. 1986. Finding Lost Space. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Triple A. Dinas Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata DIY. Tugas Perkembangan Arsitektur 1. Semester Genap 20042005. Fakultas Teknik-UAJY Utaberta, Nangkula. 16-17 Juni 2004.Konsep Arsitektur Islam dan Perumahan Islam dari Perspektif Sunnah. Symposium Nasional Arsitektur Islam, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 390 UNDERSTANDING THE DUALISM IN CITY PLANNING 1 Laksmi Gondokusumo Siregar Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia e-mail : laksmisiregaryahoo.com Abstract Human being has two sides giving them the possibility to live, namely spirit and physical or soul and body. Starting from the issue of these two sides of life, this paper will discuss the relationship as far as the human life exists, starting from the understanding that human existence as living creature is different from other living creatures. Therefore in discussing about city arrangement, it is better to start from the issues of human with their lives. According to Merleu-Ponty, human arises as a particular organization possessing two unsure inside, namely spiritual unsure and physical unsure. Therefore, human does not lives merely on hisher pyhsical, but they live because of their spirit, too. These two sides of human life always go side by side in undergoing human life. If the two are not in balance, there will be possibility that human life will not run according to what is expected. In other words, the two have to run in harmony, so that they will guide human being into healthy life, body and soul. Key words: human, spirit, manifestation, symbol, urban Preliminary The streamline of human life is the factor of the arising of things around human life and able to support their life. Various things around us are the manifestation of our lives, such as buildings made by human for conducting better life. Clusters of buildings will from cities, which becomes the social life of human. City planning can express, in non verbal language, the characteristics of its citizens. Because of the communication power showed by the city planning, arranging a city has to be followed by deep understanding of human life. Human, in hisher lives, need many supports which will enhance their existence. Besides human visible physical, human also consists of soul, which also needs fulfillment. Both of these 1 Presented in International Seminar. The Knowledge City. Spirit, Character and Manifestation. November 13-14, 2007. Department of Architecture University of Sumatera Utara. Medan and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 391 matters cannot be separated one from another because of the unique relationship between human soul and body. Starting from this thought, therefore in city planning, we have to possess understanding background about the entire human life. Not merely about human to give concern to human physically, but also from the spiritual side. Therefore, to fulfill human needs entirely, in city arrangementcity planning, it is not enough to create buildings or open spaces which can be enjoyed just physically, but spiritually, the city planning has to be able to give enjoymenthappiness for the society. Related to the two matters which have to be fulfilled, therefore development for the interest of citizens to live socially have to be able to cover all human needs, both physical and spiritual body and soul. Development with thoroughly need- fulfillment can be said as human development. The Meaning of Dualism Dualism is a philosophycal view emphasizing the existence of two integral fields worlds, can not be reduced and unique. 2 The examples of supranatural-natural, spiritual-material, soul-body, visible world – invisible world, actual reality – probability reality. The oldest metaphysical dualism is Plato’s dualism. The truely existence was merely ideas. Eventhough, he admitted the existence of lower principles but opposite to ideas. Plato’s dualism was also ethical as far as he identified the goodness of ideas and crimes with the lower principles. The characteristics of human being is multidimensional, human being is consisted of soul-body-spirit. It is important for us that human being is bi-dimensional creature. In human being, there are two dimensions : spirit and matterial. 3 Human being is a united singleness but in that unity, there is duality : spirit and material. Spiritual and material cannot be reduced one to another. Although they are contradict between one and another, but they cannot be separated and cannot unbound one to another. Spiritual and material in human being are two realities. Dualism views determinism and human freedom as two realities which are strange one to another. Determinism is valid for human being physically, whereas freedom is valid for human being spiritually. These two realities which are strange one to another but they have to go along together. According to Merleu-Ponty, a French phylosopher, 2 Bagus, Lorens 1996. Kamus Filsafat Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Jakarta P 174-175 3 Snijders, Adelbert OFM Cap. 2004. Antropologi Filsafat Manusia. Paradoks dan Seruan. Kanisius Yogyakarta P 105- 110 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 392 human being arises as an organization which consists of psycho and physical unsure, subjective and objective, internal and eksternal. 4 Referred to various opinions about the meaning of dualims, it will be the material for the complementary in the following explanation, which is related with the planning of a city. City Planning Human efforts to place their activities in a certain protected place is by building places, so that human being can conduct their activities well protected and quiet. The protected place, so far, is called as the realization of human being, named : architecture. Architecture gives many chances for human to self- actualization. It gives particular meaning for human life. Human being in their ways of life owns natural characteristis, namely live in group and society. With these characteristics, human build their living space and in group to form something called city. City is the compound of buildings, roads, places of activities, settlements, recreational places and meeting places. 5 Basically, city is the total sum of places consisted of public space, economical spaces, and theater, church, landmark and houses. 6 Urban design is the combination between city planning, architecture, landscape, civil engineering and transportation. Urban design refers more to physical city. Urban design can create itself into visible formfacade buildings, design of a road, and a realization of an urban area. The product of city design is categorized into general form namely urban space and natural space. Urban space is formed by the face of building with the floor of city namely road, plaza, or other open spaces. 7 Whereas, natural space as a space represents nature inside and the surrounding of city. Being realized or not, in human language of space, we can always find the reflection of our will as human. Basically we have particular sense of space and the way we use the space. In their need of space, human has three important things, namely stimulation, security, and identity. 8 They will be explained briefly as: a. Stimulation is the real and simple part of these three factors to be understood. But this factor is more basic and less glamorous then we used to be. The extreme form is boredom, 4 Merleau –Ponty, dalam Brouwer, MAW.1988. Alam Manusia dalam Fenomenologi. Gramedia. Jakarta 5 Spreiregen, Paul D 1965. Urban Design : The Architecture of Town and Cities. McGraw Hill. P 106 6 Gruen, Victor. 1964. The Heart of Our Cities . Simon and Schuster Inc, NY 7 Budiardjo, Eko. 1999. Kota Berkelanjutan . Bandung P 61 8 Adrey, Robert, in Lawson, Bryan. 2003. The Language of Space. Architectural Press. Amsterdam, NY, London, Sidney. P 18-39 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 393 not only is about something faded but very dangerous. The experience of the lack of stimulation will continue, so that, it will erradicate the subject from receiving information of from outer world. b. Security; we all have the very basic need in the stability degree, continuity and predictable life. It may be sound interesting for not possessing such things, but try to imagine how depressing it would be for undergoing life which always changes and cannot be predicted. We are dependent to our sanity in knowing about the regulations. Two most depressing things are moving home and holiday. c. Identity is one of the important and basic things in the spirit of human being. It is important to create and nurture identity. According to Krier, urban space is all spaces lie in between or out of buildings in urban areas. Urban space has to be differentiated from certain prominent characteristic, in the quality of detail management and activity in it. An urban space is ideally surrounded by walls, floors, and has strict meaning to serve citizens. Buildings can form its surrounding space so that landmark and node can be formed. 9 Some theories of urban design are : a. Figure ground theory, 10 is based on a main components namely solid figure namely blocks of the buildings mass and voids. They are the out space which are formed between the blocks. b. Linkage theory 11 . Linkage is the most successful glue in writing the urban form where the building masses which speak in the lingkage will form articulation. c. Place theory, is the combination of the two prior theories. This theory emphasizes the cultural and historical factors. This theory gives the local shapes according to the potential of the society so that the socio-cultural values can be accepted. All of the theories above have to be concerned integrally in the urban area planning, because those three theories are the same importance. The ideology forms urban design, among others are 12 : 1. Concern to urban aesthetic arrangement. Rome is the example of using this ideology, with Piazza Saint Peters as its open space. 2. Concern to social environment. This ideology is developed. 3. Ideal urban social environment which is expressed through ideal physical environment. 9 Krier, Rob 1979. Urban Space. NY P 15 10 Trancik, Roger. 1986. Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co N Y. P 104-108 11 Maki.Fumihiko 1964. Investigation in Collective Form. St Louis P 29 12 Budiardjo, Eko. 1999. Kota yang Berkelanjutan.Bandung P 71 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 394 There are three physical environment influence for human, namely 13 : 1. Environmental determinism; that physical environment influences the perception and human behavior. 2. Environmental possibilism; that physical environment can give chancetreshold towards human behavior. 3. Environmental probabilism; that physical environment gives choices which are different for human behavior. Those are various thoughts about city planning. They will give further and deeper views for us to understand about certain city planning. More than other dimensions which has to be concerned in city planning, social dimension grows as the main attention in the efforts to understand life values. Thus, it is time for the process of city planning to involve experts in social fields, such as anthropologist, sociologist, psychologist, so that city planning will not emphazise on merely physical issues. 14 Discussion In giving base to a city planning, it has to be realized that dualism in the realization of media formation for human life. Dualism has to be the starting point of city planning arrangement. Therefore, the work of city design can be done entirely, serving the body and soul of human. Likewise dualism which is materialphysical and soulspirit. Two unseparable things, therefore the planning of a city can be done thoroughly and human. The definition of human according to http:www.m-w.com is : a. Function shows complementary verb 1. To represent human, to show the characteristic of human, to adjust with human characteristics. 2. To become more human b. Function shows nouns : 1. Refer to humanity 2. Doctrine, attitude, way of life according to human interest and value, particularly philosophy refuses supernaturalism and emphasizes on pride, value and somebody’s capacity to actualize himherself. The fulfillment of spiritual human need will lead to 13 Rapoport, Amos 1980. Human Aspect of Urban Form : Towards a Man Environment Approach to Urban Form and Design Oxford P 34 14 Siregar, L Gondokusumo 2005. Penyediaan Ruang Publik yang Me”Manusiawi”kan Kehidupan Kota. Proceeding Seminar Nasional : Peran Ruang Publik Dalam Pengembangan Sektor Properti dan Kota. Jurusan Arsitektur Fakultas Teknik Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang 2005 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 395 something more human in the city planning arrangement. The level of education which is still far from adequate for a developed country like Indonesia, has to become the main priority in developing the city planning. Therefore, it is an important duty of local government as the decision maker in the arrangement of city planning. Local government has to fully realize that understanding dualism is very important for fulfilling the needs of the citizens, and it has to be done consistently. By conducting a city based on the dualism above, where they have to go in harmony, thus this will influence the characteristic of the citizens and thoroughly the characteristic of a city will be more human. It is caused by the balance condition between physical and spiritual body and soul. Balance for human life is very important, because if we emphasize only on physical in the city planning, there will be emptiness for the spiritual of the city, likewise citizens who lack of spiritual fulfillment. Many of Citizens in Indonesia do not realize yet the importance of their spiritual fulfillment. It is caused by the low level of knowledge and education. Because of this thought, it is something proper for the officers doing the city planning to understand and apply the human spiritual sides in general. Conclusion From the previous discussion, it can be concluded that giving base on the complete understanding about human life is important in city planning . Human physical life, which is two-sided and always go together, has been clearly discussed. Dualism in the human is something unreducable. One with another cannot go by itself, but the two have to go together. Something which is not realized in their lives, human needs both of them to exist in himherself. This can be the basic that the arrangement of city planning is a human place of the citizens, to live, to exist, and to self-actualize, well and entirely. Therefore, city planning which is planned to serve the citizens, and it is an obligation to be based on the fulfillment of psychological and physical needs of human being. References 1. Bagus, Lorens. 1996. Kamus Filsafat. Gramedia Pustaka Utama Jakarta 2. Brouwer MAW. 1998.Alam Manusia dalam Fenomenologi. Gramedia Jakarta 3. Budihardjo, Eko. 1999. Kota Berkelanjutan.. Alumni Bandung 4. Gruen, Victor. 1964. The heart of Our Cities. Simon Schuster Inc N Y and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 396 5. Maki.Fumihiko 1964. Investigation in Collective Form. Washington University Publications. St Louis 6. Krier, Rob 1979. Urban Space. Rizzoli Int. N Y 7. Lawson, Bryan. 1999. The Language of Space.Architectural Press. Amsterdam, London, N Y, Sydney. 8. Rapoport, Amos. 1980. Human Aspect of Urban Form : Towards a Man Environment Approach to Urban Form and Design. Pergamon Press, Oxford 9. Snijders, Adelbert 2003. Antropologi Manusia, Paradoks dan Seruan Kanisius Yogyakarta 10. Spreiregen, Paul D 1965. Urban Design ; The Architecture of Town and Cities Mc Graw Hill 11. Trancik, Roger 1986.Finding Lost Space; Theories of Urban Design Van Norstrand Reinhold. N Y and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 397 DESIGN AS AN INSTRUMENT TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY LIFE OF THE POOR: ISSUES FOR RESEARCH Suparti Amir Salim Doctor in Architecture, School of Architecture, Planning and Policy Development, Institute Technology Bandung, Indonesia buparbdg.centrin.net.id Abstract The paper describes three key issues: urbanization, Informal Sector and Settlement, and the Role of Architects that considered important to be discussed to put design as an instrument for creating inclusive society. There area several challenges and need to be fulfilled to strengthen the position and the role of architect and design in social transformation needs. It needs urban development institution based on the principles of good governance, sufficient knowledge on the problems and issues regarding the provision of urban places for the poor and the vulnerable, their need and their social characteristics, the architect ability to negotiate development for the interest of all. Both urbanization and dualistic characters of urban spaces raised issues regarding inclusive society and how the architects, urban planner and designer can have significant roles in urban social transformation. But not only the designer institution have to be strengthen but also the perception of other development actors regarding design have to be changed. They should put design as socially responsible activity Keywords: informal sector, kampong improvement marginalization, segregation, urban design and planning, urbanization Introduction The objectives of urban planning and design basically to fit the places with the socio-economic needs or the life style of the urban people or the users. The objectives generally implied a question how the lives of all citizens may be improved. But the users of settlements, particularly urban areas, consist of many communities. Each of communities has own interest, needs and values, which may conflict to each other. That is why the decisions related to urban design and planning to improve the quality life of the citizens, tend to be the arena of power conflicts among the actors involved and influenced by the development. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 398 Healey mentioned that negotiations among actors involved in development process would be influenced by the resources they had. It means that the urban poor who has lack of resources –no information – no technology and no capital- would not be able to negotiate their interest with other actors who have more resources or power. The implication of this situation is that the poor will only have places unwanted by the better off, and may be unwanted by the poor themselves. The replacement of Rusun Pulo Mas with high-middle income apartment, showed the power of market to develop urban places. The eviction of Pulo Mas Rusun raised a clash between the inhabitants and the guards. This incident reflected the powerless of the low income urban people to defend their places wanted by them One of the requisites to build a place is to fit its plan with the city master plan. The master plan tend only to regulate the urban land use. But it seems that there is no consideration yet on how the socio-cultural and economic life of urban people would and should to be organized. In housing development, there was a regulation which determine the proportion of house type based on income. Developers have to build 6 units of decent houses and 3 units for middle income people for one unit of luxury house. The spirit of the regulation was the social integration through housing plan and design. But it was generally neglected not only by developers but local government as well, or they intrepreted the regulation differently. The developers could build the portion of decent houses somewhere else, or paid some amount of money to local government instead of building the decent houses, such as in West Java Province. Now the wide socio-economic disparity among the urban people, can be seen clearly through the different quality of urban settlement and or other urban facilities for urban poor and the better off The practice of urban places development through market mechanism seem to be unfit with the aspiration to implement urban sustainable development. This sustainable urban development was based on the principles of good local governance endorsed by the United Nations, that are Srivanas  Participation: requires freedom of association and expression on the one hand and an organized civil society on the other hand.  Rule of law: requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially and full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities.  Transparency: decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and regulations. Information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 399  Responsiveness: requires that institutions and processes try to develop means to collate views and opinions of all stakeholders and respond to them in a timely manner, and within a reasonable timeframe.  Consensus oriented: requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved.  Equity and inclusiveness: ensures that all members of society feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. All groups, particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being  Effectiveness and efficiency: the processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal, the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment.  Accountability: an organization or an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions Although in Indonesia there are many efforts to build democracy and involving people in many development program implementation, but it is still far away to have development institution and process that fit the principles of good governance mentioned above. In my view, based on my observation to Bandung city, instead of reaching a good governance city, we tend to be in involution process. Housing development in Bandung carried out by the Dutch Government in the early XX created integrated housing area for high income people, mostly the Europeans, and the low income people, mostly Indonesian or pribumi. Housing for different income people were arranged through a hierarchy of circulation in such away so the housing spaces changed smoothly from the high income people to the low income. While the housing development in 1970’s until 1980’s showed that the new housing development was part of city development. But since 1990’s the new developments have been created many enclaves in the city area and its surroundings. These new developments generally give no access to their neighbors, the kampong inhabitants. It seems that in Dutch era city planners and architects had significant roles in shaping cityscape and created city for the interest of all inhabitants. The very well known of them is Thomas Karsten. He was a socialist and his decisions on city plan and design were probably influenced by his ideology. The ideology of architect and city designers, as well as city managers, may have significant roles in city development. If they took side with the and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 400 people, their decision might for the benefit of all. Their ideology and their political power are very important in creating city for all. Their ideology and power may help creating city institutional development based on good governance principles. But they have to have sufficient knowledge and understanding the problems and issues regarding the provision of urban places for the poor and the vulnerable, their need and their social characteristics as well. This will help them to be able to act fairly. This paper tries to offer two urban development issues: urbanization and sector informal. These are not new issues, but I think we do not have sufficient understanding yet about these two issues in the context of creating urban places for all. Urbanization and sector informal are the phenomena of our cities that have great potency to contribute to urban social and spatial conflicts. At the fourth part of the paper, I will try to discuss the role of architect and place designer as part of social development. There will be no conclusion at the end of this paper, as the issues are open to many answers and related to other important issues. Urbanization, Globalization and Place Identity Population movement has played a key role not only in the growth of urban centers in Asia but it has strongly influenced the social, economic and demographic structure and development of those centers Hugo, 2003:7. But not only urbanization, we are now in the process of globalization as well. A new international division of labor, with an accent on globally integrated production and the transnational corporation, has dawned. The multinational corporation, which rose rapidly during the 1970s, has now become common in every corner of the world Fu and Yue, 1996:9. We can see the negative sides of the two process, as a process of impoverishment and the marginalization of local and national economic actors. But on the other hand job opportunity is increasing. Looking a job abroad is now becoming easier. Generally working in foreign countries can get much more money rather than working in Indonesia. It means that from foreign countries, some Indonesian peoples will have potency to improve the quality of their houses at the place of their origins. But could the local government and the community use this potency as an engine to improve the quality of their settlement in a wide sense, not only the houses owned by the workers. Maletis mentioned that there was a causal link between urban population growth and increases in poverty. The majority of the new urban entrants is poor and tends to settle in poverty- stricken neighborhoods among others in similar or worse economic conditions Smith. On the other hand, some bussines and urban jobs particularly those that related with multi national corporation, can create affluent people. The urban poor are not always the new urban migrant as well, they may be the local and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 401 people. Urbanization can make the local people to be marginalized. The migrant can take more benefit from the local resources rather than the local people. According to my general observation and some qualitatve data, mostly the actors in bussiness areas and the owners of relatively luxury housing at many locations in Bandung city are not the local people sundanese. Issues regarding the marginalization of the local people were often discussed in many mass media. It was said that the owners had to live outside the house while the guest lived inside the house. Affluent individuals and families are more likely to interact only with other affluent people. They do not only dominate the urban spaces, but they have much location in rural areas too. They tend to live in a low permeability housing with guards that is well known as gated community, and likewise the commercial areas and buildings. Modern malls and shopping centres were designed as such, so there is no trickle down effect to the low income local people areas lived near this modern commercial activities. Spatial and social segregation exist between the poor and the affluent, whereas their location is close by. The target group of place development, either commercial buildings or housing, in a modern city is differentiated by different socio-economic background of them, not by their socio-cultural background. But the socio-economic background of people tends to coincide with the ethnic background. That is why, if urban development policy was based on market driven, it will mean that the development would only facilitate or gave benefit to a certain socio-cultural group of people only. As the affluent people are not the local people, they might need different identity of the place with the local people. In my view, the local community has a need to maintain and develop their socio-cultural life. The phenomenon of “mudik” shows that there is a need to go back to the place of origin or their home. On the other hand, the migrants –individual and families- need a place fit to their social characteristics and identity Plurality seems a big challenge which has to be responded by the architects, urban planners and designers. Creating inclusive society –socially and spatially- lead to a question on how the places for the affluent people have to integrated and segregated with the poor one, to give opportunity to the poor get gain from the economic power of the affluent. But each of social group have place fit to their own need. The settlement pattern in the central city of Bandung inherited by the Dutch may give a picture about the spatial and social relationship between different ethnic and socio-economic background of the inhabitants. The settlement consists of large blocks separated by city circulation. Houses of the better off located at along side the road, but the lower income group mostly lived in the inner side of and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 402 the blocks or the kampong areas. The inhabitants of the kampong had a good access to the main road and other part of the city. I lived at the city centre part of Bandung many years ago. I have a perception that social relationship between the indigenous local people sundanese or pribumi with the Chinese descent was relatively good. There was an economic network among the medium large scale textile traders of Chinese descent with the home industry small scale industry of clothes making ran informally by the local people. Around Lebaran, the Chinese usually gave presents to their Moslem neighbour and relatives, and the other way round the Moslems gave presents to their Chinese neighbour and relatives around Imlek. Kampong area in city business area made the place affordable by low income people. They had also good access to the economic activities existed in their area. But social integration is not only the matter of design. Socio-political and economic condition at the macro level will determine whether a good network and social relationship could be established or not. A good design will facilitate and help the social relationship flourish. The question is whether the designers or architects have to take first initiative to create inclusive community, or whether they just follow the mainstream. In my view, architect and urban designers have to be a powerful negotiator in the urban places development process for the interest of all. This means that the designers or the architects have to able to give inspirations and influences other actors – particularly the local government- to act in the interest of all. The present condition of Bandung city is very different with the condition of Bandung fifty years ago. The old Ducth settlement pattern may be unfit for th present situation. But the settlement or modern housing development carried out by the Dutch government in the colonization era gave a good lesson to be learned. City seems to be treated as an integration of a numbers of different settlement that had their own characteristic. Each settlement or part of the city was planned and designed differenty. But in each of settlement there were places for various income group fit with their socio economic and socio cultural need. It seems that inclusive design may help creating more integrated urban places that will be able to flourish social integration. But how the marginalized local people to be able to maintain their place identity, while the resources to develop were in the hand of non local people, and or they become a minority in their own place? It is also questionable whether the identity of place has to change or has to be maintained. Another thing related to urbanization is that the process of social change may occur rapidly and very dynamics, while the buildings and space more difficult to change. The architects and the developers tend and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 403 to want their creation to be lasting as well. These raise a question: should and how the architectural design take place in urban transformation. Informal Sector and Settlement Informal sector and settlement are the characteristic of city in the developing countries. Since economic crisis in 1998 the informal economics seem to have been growing more rapidly. Many public spaces in Bandung, such as lapangan Gasibu and Tegallega are used for temporary market pasar kaget on every Sunday morning. Much kind of commodities are sold, from agricultural product, food, clothes up to motor cycles. These places used by people for shopping, eating, sporting and leisure. The users of informal activities and places are generally low and middle income people. Up till now we tend to see the kampongs as a product of informal economy or poverty. Our research and observation showed that the urban kampongs located in the inner city tend to be heterogeneous socially and economically. While the socio- cultural background of the inhabitants of kampong in the city periphery are more homogeneous, but economically they may be heterogeneous. Informal sector and settlement are not always identical with poverty Many researches show that the kampongs inhabitants can be happy and enjoy staying in the kampong, and many people enjoy shopping in the informal commercial areas. But there is a great tendency that city managers prefer the informal one. Kampong tends to be transformed into apartment type of housing “rumah susun”. And it seem that government institution only have very little attention to the need of low income business men women for urban places to accommodate their business activities It was expected that those activities would disappear with the growth of the economy. Contrary to earlier predictions, the informal economy has been growing rapidly in almost every corner of the globe, including industrialized countries – it can no longer be considered a temporary or residual phenomenon. The bulk of new employment in recent years, particularly in developing and transition countries, has been in the informal economy. Most people have been going into the informal economy because they cannot find jobs or are unable to start businesses in the formal economy. But work in the informal economy cannot be termed “decent” compared to recognized, protected, secure, formal employment ILO, 2002:1 ILO also mentioned that there has also been increasing flexibilization and informalization of production and employment relationships in the context of global competition and information and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 404 and communications technology ICT. More and more firms, instead of using a fulltime, regular workforce based in a single, large registered factory or workplace, are decentralizing production and reorganizing work by forming more flexible and specialized production units, some of which remain unregistered and informal. It means that most of urban population in Indonesia will remain work in the informal sector in the future. The informal way of earning money seem influence how people use their space. People work in informal sector tends to have no spatial separation. They use their house for their income generating activities. Their living room can be their working space as well; they may be use public space for their activities. The way they use their housing and the urban spaces seem to be different with them who work in the formal sector. The question is whether the informality is a way of life, and whether the informality should be seen as a part of socio-culture characteristic, the way people arranges and uses their space, and this way of live should be responded by design. Architects tend to organize space according to its function, and most of us consider the informal people used the urban spaces improperly. Many urban dwellers and urban managers regard the informal sector activities as disturbing and breaking the law. On the other hand the local authority seems never to consider the urban spaces needed by the low income informal sector seriously. They focus their interest to the formal one. The spatial problems raise by the informal sector are similar with the urbanization phenomena mentioned above, so as the challenge: how design can contribute to create inclusive society. The Role of Architect and Design in Social Transformation The third issue is about the role of the architect. Development is a result of negotiations amongst the actors involved. They, who have more resources, will dominate the decisions. Knowledge is only one of the resources the actors may have. How knowledge uses and how far it can influence development decisions, it will depend among other things on the ideology of the actor, and the appropriate role of the architects. Can architects have a strategic position in development decision process? How? It seems that we have to change the architectural institution which regulates the position of architect in the development process as well. But we may not know yet what kind of change we need. Margolins mentioned that since the Industrial Revolution, the dominant design paradigm has been one of design for market, and alternatives have received little attention. And there has been little theorizing about a model of product design for social need. Nor has attention been given to changes in the education of and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 405 product designers that might prepare them to design for populations in need rather than for the market alone. They also raised a number of questions which I think we should try to answer 2002:8: What role can a designer play in a collaborative process of social intervention? What is currently being done in this regard and what might be done? How can agencies that fund social welfare projects and research gain a stronger perception of design as a socially responsible activity? What kinds of products meet the needs of vulnerable populations? In my opinion, in Indonesia design tend to be regarded as a micro element only in urban development. Most people consider design relates only to the beautification of place or building, and so, it is only a matter of rich people who can pay the cost and the price. There were some architects who worked for poor community, but the scope of development they involved relatively limited. It was mostly not related with creating spaces for all in macro context. It seems that many efforts have to be done: improving the institution, the knowledge, the education and also the perception of other development actors regarding design as a socially responsible activity Reference Amir S.A 2005 Segregasi dan Keadilan Ruang, Kasus Studi: Lingkungan Perumahan Dualistik di Bandung dan Makassar, Tesis S3 tak dipublikasikan, SAPPK-ITB Barbosa, EM. 2001. Urban Spatial Segregation and Social Differentiation: Foundation for a Typological Analysis, Paper prepared for International Seminar on Segregation in the City Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, July 25-28. Cuthbert A.R. 2006 The New Imperialism: Culture, Class and Space , Seminar Proceedings, International Seminar on Urban Culture, Arte-Polis: Creative Culture and the Making of Place, Bandung, 21-22 July Duany J, 1998 Latin American Perspectives, Reconstructing Racial Identity: Ethnicity, Color, and Class among Dominicans in the United States and Puerto Rico . http:lap.sagepub.com Fu L, Yue Y. Ed 1996 Emerging world cities in Pacific Asia. Tokyo, United Nations University Press http:www.unu.eduunupressunupbooksuu11eeuu11ee00 .htm Healey P. 2000 Planning Theory and Urban and Regional Dynamics: A Comment of Yiftachel and Huxley. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 24: 917-921 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 406 Hugo G 2003 Urbanization in Asia: An Overview. Paper prepared for Conference on African Migration in Comparative Perspective, Johannesburg, South Africa, 4-7 June 2003 2-Hugo.pdf International Labor Conference 2002. 90 th Session 2002. Report VI. Decent work and the informal economy. Sixth item on the agenda. Jamieson B, Trade Liberalization: Culture, Identity and Social Cohesion , paper prepared on behalf of the PRI-GCON Working Group on World Trade Issues. Kavaratzis M City Marketing: The Past, the Present and Some Unresolved Issues, in Geography Compass 13 2007: 695 –712, 10.1111j.1749-8198.2007.00034.x Maletis J. Is Urbanization the Cause of Third World Unemployment and Poverty? http:www.kimep.kzSSEpopdev- kTopicsConferencesUrbanizationMaletis5-deh.html Marcus P 2001 Enclaves Yes, Ghettoes, No: Segregation and the State, Paper prepared for International Seminar on Segregation in the City Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, July 25-28. Margolin V , Margolin S 2002 A “Social Model” of Design: Issues of Practice and Research. Design Issues 18 4, 24-30 McGuinness M What is the Cause of Third World Urbanization? Economic Efficiency, http:www.kimep.kzSSEpopdev- kTopicsConferencesUrbanization mcguinness4-deh.html Sabatini F et al 2001 Residential Segregation Pattern Changes in Main Chilean Cities: Scale Shift and Increasing Malignancy, Paper prepared for International Seminar on Segregation in the City Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, July 25-28. Smith T Are Cities Concentrating Economic Inequality? http:www.kimep.kzSSEpopdev- kTopicsConferencesUrbanizationUrban.html Srinavas H. . Environmental Governance Issues for Urban Areas, United Nations Environment Program, International Environmental Technology Center hari_urban_egovernance-ppt.pdf Reinders L, Re-imagining a new town: the architecture of empowerment and segregation in a Dutch post-war neighborhood Schnell I; Harpaz M. 2005 A model of a heterogeneous neighborhood, Geo-Journal 2005 64: 105 –115 _ Springer 2006 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 407 THE KNOWLEDGE CITY: WHOSE KNOWLEDGE? A Case Study of Jakarta Triatno Yudo Harjoko Department of Architecture, University of Indonesia Abstract Knowledge as Foucault argues is power. It embodies as episteme within society. Formation, transformation of a city has closely been related to a constitution of its society. Indonesia is constituted by huge continuum of society ranging from the tribal, class-divided up to capitalist societies. Recent urban settlement in Indonesia represents this continuum. Its plurality represents a dual-society. The triadic cultural theme of knowledge-power- space discloses the spatial formation of a city. Scarcity of urban land stimulates conflict and those powerful will win. This paper critically assesses the episteme of architects and planners that assume consensus approach to city formation. A city has been envisaged as merely composition of matters. A city is not what appears or manifests; it is about what Lefebvre calls informe – liminal form that conceals its connectivity and rupture. Analysis focuses on the constitution of society in Indonesian cities that shows maps of social practices with no traces. Any society will presume knowledge of its own that manifests its practices over urban space. Findings have shown that the city in Indonesia is a map of a disintegrated-social calculus; and that the weakest are marginalized. Keywords city, knowledge, power, space, and constitution of society I will refer the term knowledge city in this seminar to a city that develops and is based upon knowledge. Knowledge here applies to general knowledge that human being may acquire and is not confined to that of scientific. Knowledge is a product of human culture – non-material one. A city and the rise of social are two sides of a coin. The rise of social is in existence because of the emerging plurality of human existence in a place called polis or city. In turn, the human condition of plurality is essentially the condition of all political life. This condition permits or enables individuals or groups to have authority, control, and domination over others. Under the condition of plurality, humans take various forms and degrees of social integration according to their common knowledgevalue and interest. From this societal phenomenon in a polis or city it and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 408 has been invented the idea of privatepublic realms. The social demands public affairs and interests invested in a city to ensure that people have the equal right to live, act in it. Indonesia is a multicultural society in which it remains being constituted by all types of society, that is, tribal, class- divided, and class capitalist society. Their locales – place and setting of interaction – represent their respective public image. Who Build a City? A city is build by its people or society. What kind of society? At present Western world, society is predominantly produced, in a Giddensian sense, by a structure, system and structuration called capitalism. It is relatively mono dimensional as Herbert Marcuse terms it. A city is market center in this sense that governs its formation. Social practices produce locales that secure their everyday activities. In Indonesian case a city has been created by heterogeneous people, groups as a mix of tribal, class-divided to capitalist society. It embodies a mix of differential knowledge and worldviews. It is a calculus of a differential social formation. Each group will perceive a city as their own image or imagining. Urban generation and formation is governed by this various political interests of the society – such as government ‘pseudo public’, public, private, and popular sectors. Understanding society means understanding how it is constituted and how it practices spatially. In a significant disparity among people in a multicultural society like Indonesia, the picture is more than intricate and challenging. I will discuss this spatial form in this context in terms of mandala to refer to designate a structure of order, where the ‘Great Man’ is represented in the center of a circle divided by four, a symbolic representation of the ‘nuclear atom’ of the human psyche It is used to refer a centrality of space that may be understood as a representation of the Self or of the Selves – ‘man of power.’ Perfect Mandala. In the past, especially in the Javanese society, the city was primarily constituted by the court culture – a class-divided society. The dominant society spatially segregated city localities, namely, the court culture or the ruling class from the rest. The city-state or Kutha was arranged in a concentric mode and the spatial order was conceived into five hierarchies: 1 at the center was the Sultan as the sole source of power; its center was reinforced by Sultan ’s kinsmen such as 2 Nuclear nobility in the kraton, 3 Nobility in the walled city and 4 Commoners and muetihan villages of four corners; at the outer circle 5 rural population in the countryside. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 409 Figure 1. Perfect Mandala Mandala of the Conqueror. The colonial government built their own cities to secure their interests. Coastal cities like Jakarta was primarily built outward orientated as a terminal to export resources accumulated from the colonies in Indonesia. In this colonial scheme [knowledge], the idea of a city was a collection of administrative buildings, colonial residences, warehouses, and military camps. The Dutch shaped Jakarta as Mandala of the Conqueror by building a square called Champ de Mars literally means ‘Field of March’. This signified the spatial and military importance of Jakarta and of its government system. This square is now called Monumen Nasional or National Monument. Under the Japanese occupation of about three and half years, from 1942-1945, the morphology of Jakarta did not change. The Japanese instead introduced a ‘bureaucratic system’ to the city administration, introducing several levels of municipal administration called tonarigumi or neighborhood groups that essentially was a technology of surveillance. This system was effectively exploited by the New Order regime. In the post colonial era nothing much has been changed. Cities, especially Jakarta, are still representation of the ‘powerful’. While societies develop and grow they are simultaneously disintegrating into two extreme modes – dual society. One extreme enjoys connectivity by time-space distantiation and disembedding mechanisms beyond locality; the other are suffered from involution and marginalization. Disembedding mechanisms such as money, symbolic means, English as the lingua franca and the Internet help to lift out and activities in an abstract or online form that were once embedded in particular material goods and in places. Mandala of the great man. After independence in 1945, the periods of history of Jakarta can be classified into the two distinct politics and administration: the Old Order and New Order, and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 410 representing Soekarnos and Soehartos periods respectively. The Old Order took the period of 1945-1965. The New Order is the period of 1965-1998. These orders were named by the Soeharto regime exactly to distinguish their difference. During the Soekarno period the country was still overwhelmed by the new social and political condition, associated with the euphoria of freedom and the overturning of imperialism. Soekarno faced internal problems of disintegration of the outer islands in the Nusantara, who sought to gain their freedom. Indonesian nationalism was Soekarno ’s response. Soekarno’s view of development was in direct opposition to those of Hatta, his vice president. Soekarno insisted that the revolusi belum selesai, or revolution was not finish yet, and development was to focus on nation building. Hatta, an economist, had a more pragmatic view that Indonesia needed to make more effort and give attention to the economic development. However, Hatta lost political support, preferring to step down from the political arena. Soekarno, the first president of Indonesia, was born from an aristocratic priyayi class, holding the title of ‘Raden’ before his name. Although he talked of his poverty, which was actually that of the Javanese people as a whole, he claimed he belonged to the common people. After the Dutch formally transferred sovereignty to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia on 27 December 1949, Soekarno took his leave of Yogyakarta, the Republic’s revolutionary capital, and returned to Jakarta, the capital of the new Indonesia. Like other Javanese rulers in the more distant past, Soekarno adopted of the regal which conferred power upon him. Soekarno’s initial heroic accomplishment in the new capital city was to replace colonial names, notably changing the name of Batavia once again to Jakarta. His entry into the presidential palace, formerly the residence of Dutch Governor- General, was a moment of historic fulfilment. The Champ de Mars, or Koningsplein, the vast square to the south of the palace, was named Medan Merdeka Freedom Square. The residency became the Istana Merdeka Freedom Palace. Since Soekarno had graduated as an architect-engineer from the Bandung Institute of Technology, he had been obsessed with the building of the representation of the glory of Indonesian struggle for independence in the capital city of Jakarta. In his speech on ‘the transformation of Djakarta Raya,’ he proclaimed to “[build] up Djakarta as beautifully as possible, build it as spectacularly as possible, so that this city, which has become the centre of the struggle of the Indonesian people, will be an inspiration and beacon to the whole of struggling mankind and to all the emerging forces. If Egypt was able to construct Cairo as its capital, Italy its Rome, and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 411 France its Paris and Brazil its Brasilia, then Indonesia must also proudly present Djakarta as the portal of the country .” Soekarno 1962 One-way for Soekarno to realise his dream of nation building was through the built environment. He seriously put forward modernity as a movement to liberate Indonesia from the colonial and imperial remnants of the Dutch. Soekarnos ambition in the planning and design of the Central Jakarta was seen as a part of his larger political plans to enforce his authoritarian regime. Soekarno conceived of Jakarta as a portal for Indonesia, a showcase of the country, albeit masking mounting economic troubles and political instability. If the city of Jakarta were spectacular, so it was assumed, was the rest of the country. To realise his dream, he conceived Jakarta City spatially as a sequence of spectacle. They constitute prestigious monuments, buildings, and thoroughfares: a series of urban projects from its portal, namely, the Kemayoran airport in the North of Jakarta to the suburb of the South of Jakarta, Kebayoran. Along this route, Thamrin and Sudirman Avenues, Soekarno placed different monuments and prestigious buildings: the National Monument, the Sarinah Department Store, the Hotel Indonesia and a wellcoming monument Tugu Selamat Datang, as well as Sporting Complex or Olympic Stadium in Senayan. Structuration of society was centred on nationalism and ideologies put forward by Soekarno. Alternative ideas that were related to a developmental economy were easily equated as capitalist and worst imperialist. In this sense, the structuration of the society became tribalistic. Within such a political climate, people obsessed with maintaining the size of political organisations by accumulating party members down to the village level to compete with their opponents. Consequently, social spaces were developed to accommodate this fashion. Jakarta became a spatial collection of fragmented political groups attached to their respective domiciles. This fragmentation of society was especially noticeable in kampung settlements. In a political sense, different kampungs had different political base- camps. For example, different kampungs provided separate bases for members and supporters of communist, nationalist and religious parties respectively. In this period, it was common to refer to a kampung as ‘red’, ‘green’ or nationalist. Individuals felt the pressure to be associated with ideological parties and positions. Nobody could claim to be golongan putih, or neutral, since such an individual could be branded as kontra revolus,i or contra-revolutionary. Despite decades of change, today we can still find such an attribute given to a kampung., Penggilingan is, and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 412 for example, daerah hijau, or a ‘green’ area because most of the population are members of the Islamic party. In this situation, political ideologies, rather than class status or the like heavily influenced social action. Surprisingly, the different competing groups all regarded Soekarno as Pemimpin Besar Revolusi, or Big Revolution Leader, and consequently, were subject to Soekarnos charisma. Spatially Jakarta was divided into three social spaces. Firstly, there were the Dutch historic places, including residential areas were mostly acquired by the government and a few Chinese businessmen. Secondly, there were the heroic spacse of nationalism as a representation of the Self of the great man - Soekarno. This was especially evident in the centre of Jakarta as well as at the Nusantara. Thirdly, there were the undeveloped or untouched kampung settlements in the periphery that represented fragments of golongans or political factions. Mandalas of the powerful: Orderly Chaos. The ‘New Order’ is Soehartos era. The great majority sees this period, from 1965-1998, as an era of pembangunan or development. Soeharto and his subsequent cabinets of technocrats in the different periods of the presidency implemented capitalism in the Indonesian economy. He has authoritarian in approach of Javanese background, his attitude to governance was informed by his being a military general. With a diam or silence in maintaining power, he reserved the decisions for every strategic political and economic decision in the country for himself. In this manner, he became the only centre for decisions that affected the peoples fate. Social practices became heavily depended on his decisions, since no opposition was allowed. Social closure through exclusion is inevitably identified with him, his family and cronies. A common saying, publicly mocks him and his cronies, says that Indonesia sudah habis dibagi ke keluarga dan kroni-kroni Soeharto Indonesian geography has completely been dealt out to Soehartos family and cronies. Jakarta was no exception to this dividing of spoils during the period. Urban planning has forced to ad hoc changes due to the vital investment of large companies. Business in property speculation boomed along with the increase in both industrial and service sectors. The unjustifiable multiplication of property development projects related to high-income housing took place in the greater Jakarta or in the JABODETABEK region Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi Jakarta became the city of spectacles. Beautiful architecture lined along the thoroughfares, and in different places was built single large property developments. Before the proliferation of the property businesses, urban development in Jakarta was exemplified by ribbon development criss-crossing the city. Here and there are jungles or enclaves of the unplanned and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 413 kampung settlements. In this mode of development, it seemed that the local government simply let go planning controls, leading to fragmentation, with projects appearing in any places the investors could get hold of. No efforts were made to control such a development, which inevitably resulted in an increasing burden on the main roads, with direct access to developments. National Monument Hotel Indonesia Senayan Sport Complexes Well-coming Statue Sarinah Deparment Store Figure 2. Mandala of the great man - Soekarno. He manifested his Self into Jakarta. Source: After Taylor,J. L. and D. G. Williams, Upgrading of Low-income Residential Areas in Jakarta and Manila, in Urban Planning Practice in Developing Countries, eds. J.L. Taylor and D. G. Williams, Oxford, New York, Toronto, Sydney, Paris, Frankfurt: Pergamon Press, 1982: 239-58, p. 247 NUSANTARA Climate of urban development, critics of the New Order, like Rendra, a poet, emerged to write the following verse in Jakarta in 1977: We are dominated by the dream of becoming other people We are strangers in the land of our ancestors Dazed, the villagers chase dreams and sell themselves to Jakarta Dazed, Jakartans chase dreams And sell themselves to Japan, Europe, and America. This poem vividly illustrates the simulacra of Jakarta City. The city becomes alien to its own people, becomes hyperreal. In this sense, Jakarta becomes a territory that no longer precedes the map. On Baudrillards account, simulacra are not only a game played with signs; they imply social relations and social power, such as that in the New Order government, when and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 414 modernisation was taking place through the ideology of economic growth and through authoritarian government. The signification of pembangunan or ‘development’ conveys meanings intended to economically increase the GNP. This was done by letting resources be developed by advanced countries, and physically by building a modern beautiful city to promote pembangunan. Jakarta as a Capital City was especially supposed to provide services to achieve pembangunan. The services and infrastructure was to conform to an international standard characteristic of best cities in the advanced world. In short, Jakarta should simulate the modern city of the world. This simulation inevitably depresses the real map of the kampungs social, economic, and political existence. It then re-emerges in this subjugated map an authentic Jakarta known as perkampungan besar. Source: Taken from Kompas newspaper, M. Kusumawijaya, Thamrin-Sudirman Aaavenue, Jakarta: A Case Study in the Problems of Modernization in a Developing Metropolis, International Workshop on Housing - Urban Coherence and Housing Strategies, UNHCS and PGCHS KU Leuven, Bandung 1990, p. 6 Figure 3. A caricature of King Kong, the land mafia on top of the National Monument in Jakarta In the late 1980s, an economic boom due, to the foreign capital inflow to the country and the economic growth of the country, had engendered a property boom, especially in the commercial sector. The extensive land acquisition in the strategic area of the Jakarta has phased out a number of kampung settlements. Following economic boom due to the blessing of the oil prize increase by the end 1970s, Indonesia started its economic plan the controversial economic growth in the New Order of government. Primary cities, such as Jakarta, Bandung and Surabaya, gained momentum for their development including incessant migration from all over the country. In this period, government sector, instead of public, was then and still is now a dominant player in the economy where urban investments were dominated by this sector. As a result, the government programs and implementations were beyond the public control. The destruction or penggusuran of kampung, both ‘legal’ and illegal squatter’s kampung, has been going on since the 1980s up to now. It underwent in either a ‘formal’ way through a process of negotiation and subsequent compensation, or paksa forced with no compensation especially for those of squatter kampung. Statistical data recorded by Urban Poor Consortium UPC in Jakarta indicate that more than 170,000 households evicted and about 8600 houses have demolished Table 1. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 415 TIME-SPACE DISTANTIATION Figure 4. Structuration, Spatial Implication the image of the city LOCALE OF Y Medium Outcome Outcome Medium Production of Social Interaction B Reproduction of social systems B Medium Outcome Outcome Medium Area of Conflict Production of Social Interaction A Reproduction of social systems A Medium Outcome Outcome Medium Production of Social Interaction A Reproduction of social systems A Medium Outcome Outcome Medium Production of Social Interaction B Reproduction of social systems B Area of Conflict LOCALE OF X OTHER LOCALES VIRTUALRHIZOME Figure 5. Systemic destruction of kampung settlement and life. a. Penggusuran in the 1985 in Bendungan HIlir, Jakarta Source: http:www.urbanpoor.or.idgaleri , 24 April 2004; b Penggusuran in Kampung Sawah, Jakarta – 2004, Source: http:www.urbanpoor.or.idgaleri , 24 April 2004 a b and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 416 Table 1. Eviction in Jakarta, 1996 - 2002 NO LOCATION DATE TOTAL Households or buildings 1 DKI Jakarta 1990 739 hh 8037 buildings, fences, houses, billboards, and canteen 2 DKI Jakarta 1991 8.443 hh 754 hh 512 buildings 5.049 houses 3 DKI Jakarta 1995 45 buildings 4 DKI Jakarta 1992 6784 shacks, retail kiosks, buildings, people, and houses 5 DKI Jakarta Jan-December 1996 265 hh 6 Greater Jakarta Jabotabek Jan-December 1996 66,526 hh 7 Greater Jakarta Jabotabek Jan-December 1997 61919 hh 8 Flood canals Kali Jodo, Kelurahans of Pejagalan and Penjaringan, North Jakarta 1998 350 houses 9 Pesing Polgar, Kedaung Kaliangke, West Jakarta 1998 667 houses 10 Kamal Muara, Penjaringan, North Jakarta 1998 208 kk 11 Under the overhead railway lines from the Sawah Besar Terminal to Mangga Besar Terminal in Kelurahan Karang Anyar, Central Jakarta 11 November 2000 300 kk 12 Jalan I Gusti Ngurai Rai, East Jakarta and Kranji, Bekasi 2000 13 River banks from Kali Kanal to Kali Tanjung West Jakarta 2000 14 Pulo Gebang, Cakung, East Jakarta 31-Oct-00 50 hh 15 Pulo Gebang, Cakung, East Jakarta 18-Jul-01 12 hh 16 Pulo Gebang Cakung East Jakarta 01-Aug-01 16 hh 17 Bonded Warehouse in Kecamatan Cilincing, North Jakarta 22-Aug-01 18 Kampung Baru, Kelurahan Karang Tengah, RT 03 RW 01, Ciledug, in Tangerang 23-Aug-01 150 hh and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 417 20 Kampung nelayan Ancol Timur, North Jakarta 24-Oct-01 74 hh 21 Tanggul Jagung, Penjaringan, North Jakarta 29-30 October 2001 1200 hh 22 Banjir Kanal, Teguk Gong, North Jakarta 31-Oct-01 5.010 hh 23 Kampung Rawa Das, Pondok Kopi, East Jakarta 29-30 October 2001 2000 people 24 Pesing, Bantaran Kali Angke, Cengkareng, West Jakarta 13 November 2001 30 houses 25 Pela Pela, Tanjung Priok, North Jakarta 13 November 2001 26 Bantaran Banjir Kanal, Pejagalan, Penjaringan, North Jakarta 13 November 2001 720 hh, 500 people 27 Bantaran kali Banjir Kanal, Penjaringan North Jakarta 27-Feb-02 350 houses 28 Jalan Pegangsaan II, Kelapa Gading, North Jakarta 3-May-02 10 houses 29 Kelurahan Penjagalan, Penjaringan Jakarta Utara 30-May-02 15 houses 30 Cakung Barat Rw 09, Jakarta Timur 30-May-02 22 houses 31 Bantaran Banjir Kanal, Penjaringan Jakarta Utara 24-Jun-02 100 houses 32 Rumah PSK Pela-pela Tanjung Priuk 24-Jun-02 1 houses 33 Nelayan East Ancol, North Jakarta 5-Aug-02 31 hh 34 Kampung Baru, kelurahan Cakung Barat East Jakarta 27-Aug-02 15 houses 35 Kelurahan Pakuan , Bogor 30-Sep-02 14 houses 36 Kebon Jeruk, Jl Budi Raya RT01 RW02 West Jakarta 28 -29-Sept 02 7 houses 37 Kelurahan Kelapa Gading Barat, Kecamatan Kelapa Gading, North Jakarta 24-Oct-02 300 houses 38 Duri Pulo, Kec. Gambir, Central Jakarta 31-Oct-02 16 houses 39 Tegal Danas, kelurahan Cikarang, Bekasi 29-Dec-02 2 houses Total 170. 352 hh , 8645 houses The unit measurement is rather confusing since it mixes incompatible units such as houses, buildings, people and households; while at the end the total units refer simply to households and houses. Source: Urban Poor Consortium Website, Data penggusuran di Jakarta Dari Tahun 1996 sampai dengan Desember 2002, http:www.urbanpoor.or.id41.11.0.0.1.0.shtml , 15 May 2004 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 418 Figure 5. The private development patterns relative to their sizes that range from 50 to over 1000 hectares. Source: Pt. Procon Indah in association with Jones Lang Wootton, Major Residential Estates in the Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Area JABOTABEK, poster, 1996 50-99 hectares 100-249 hectares 250-499 hectares 500-999 hectares Over 1000 hectares Figure 6. The private development patterns of the shopping centers in Jakarta. Source: Pt. Procon Indah in association with Jones Lang wootton, Major Residential Estates in the Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Area JABOTABEK, poster, 1996 and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 419 Worst Condition Moderate Condition Light Condition LEGEND: Figure 7. Patches of Jakarta. Kampung Kumuh or destitute kampung in Jakarta is located mostly in North Jakarta where industries are located Source: Dinas Pemetaan dan Pengukuran Tanah, Pemetaan di DKI Jakarta: Sejarah dan Prospek Pengembangannya, 2000, p. 57 Figure 8. Simplified schematic urban spatial configuration of cities in Indonesia during the New Order – Mandala of the Powerful Panoptic enclaves Settlement of the underprivileged kampungs – continuously marginalized Space of the Ruler Settlement of the privileged CommercialCapitalist space Government Office and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 420 Figure 9. Perferct Mandala and Mandala of The Ruler Schematic diagrams of Towns in Mojokuto, East Java Tabanan, Bali. Source: Geertz, C., Peddlers and Princes. Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press,1963, p. 10 19 TABANAN Square Temple KING Government Offices Temple ROYAL HOUSES HAMLETS BANJAR MARKET Chinese Stores ‘Javanese’ Neighborhood MARKET Secondary Business Section SQUARE Major Business Section Railroad Station Government Offices Town Shrine MOJOKUTO Residential Areas Traders Neighbor hood MOSQUE Multiplicity of Mandala: Disorder and Hyper-real. After the fall of Suharto’s regime the country has been celebrated an ecstasy of a sudden political freedom and reform or Reformasi, while ignoring the fundamental factor that path the way of the collap se of Suharto’s regime, that is, severe economic crisis following other country such as Thailand. Political freedom along with the crumbling down of businesses increasing poverty acceleration The implication of this abrupt change has been swerving into However, this situation has not escape people from injustice, since vestiges or remnants of old political culture are still breathing in a rhizome. Economic crisis aggravates the political situation. The country has been busy with political reform and threatened against disintegration. In the one hand, political autonomy to local government simply stimulates new form of authoritarianism in the local governments. Cities reincarnate into those of the past - the seat of rulers. The commons and kampungs remain marginalized, and the latter continuously densified until they surpass their ecological limits, hence, become ‘burden’ or ‘pathological’ to the city. In the other, the constitution of society has shift into a different unusual mode. Political existence of people, namely their aspirations, no longer refers to the existing political situation, but to fragmented groups. It is an aggregate of persons, not just of individuals without active participation. This is a ‘collective spirit’ that is created in which aptitudes, identities and individualities dissolve. Capitalism plays crucial role in the shifting of structuration of urban society and its tradition. This creates a and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 421 manifold of social closure of exclusion. According to Maffesoli this mass is then tribalise d into ‘little masses’ which are heterogenous fragments, the remainder of mass consumption society, groups distinguished by their member’s shared lifestyles and tastes. Maffesoli terms it tribus . These are not ‘tribes’ in the traditional anthropological sense, for they do not have the fixity and longevity of tribes. Urban society evolves like fractals of which they are constituted by very diverse tribuses. However, in a simplified mode it is recognizable from its simply dual image of capitalistbazaar society. A city holds a derogatory name – the big village, or McGee perceives it more as a developed region called kotadesa. A tribus that constituted by the common or popular sectors reside in marginalized kampungs. The government sector enjoys its privileged to reside in a center. Private sector with its economic power has privileged to acquire what ever locale they consider as economically strategic. The latter grows as unstructured mushroom everywhere in the urban region, such as condo, malls and hypermarket such as Carefour. There are notable examples of a tribus formation both in economic and spatial terms. The emergence of electronic cities spread all over Jabodetabek. The exclusive commercial districts in Kemayoran, Jakarta are named Cyber City. This is a clearly commercially intended term, since the word ‘cyber’ refers to something virtual. While the popular struggle for their urban space by means of usurpation in any locale they can usurp. Within the housing sector, the picture has been even more schizophrenic. There are new real estate developments that go beyond what they call market mechanism. Demand has been generated by dream through media. Kota Wisata or literally ‘Tour City’ is an exemplary case. The city is finely designed through multiple clusters of foreign names, such as Florida, Orlando, and Barcelona. These are closely related to desire, to fantasies. They are hyper-real. Economic terms of production and consumption have lost their principal meaning relative to market; it is simply a production of production and production of consumption. Concluding Remarks: Princes and Peddlers Aptly coined by Gertz, Peddlers and Princes is an apposite metaphor for towns and cities in Indonesia as they developed through history, especially those of inland. Such cities were usually generated through imposition that constitutes a mode of urban diffusion that is virtually inseparable from the expansion of the empire, and is usually accompanied by the establishment of an administrative organization designed to sustain the value system of colonial power. The alternative to urban imposition is urban generation. It is a mode of processual and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 422 change subsumed within the inclusive field of social differentiation and stratification. Indonesian cities remain or endure a mix between ‘court culture’ and ‘popular culture’. The urban formation is a representation of power that may emerge as a very strong single nucleus or multiple nuclei that are barely integrated; the most crucial issues in this development are movement or traffic management. The urban generation resembles the process of colonization that has little connection or interaction with the peripheries rather than among centers. In this process, public realm that is manifest in space has been neglected. When ever possible every public space is usurped by informal sectors. Kampungs have developed into its limit and created ecological problems in the city. Globalization also means the expansion of capitalism. Global decisions further create local collisions. The geography of the city in Indonesia is simply a map of a disintegrated-social calculus incorporating a competing knowledge within the society and unfortunately the weakest are severely marginalized. References For detailed discussion see Giddens, A., The Constitution of Society. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University California Press, 1984. Boulding asserts that the growth of public image depends on the larger growth of organization and society. Boulding, K.E., The Image: Knowledge and Life in Society. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1961, esp. Chapter 5. Marcuse, H., One Dimensional Man. Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society, London: Routledge, 1964. The term government in Indonesia is pemerintah noun, perintah verb, to give order. This term may have historically derived or originated from the court culture compare to l’etat est moi. Franz, M.L. von, ‘The process of Individuation’, in C. Jung ed., Man and His Symbols, conveived and edited by C. Jung, Picador, 1964, p. 230. Soema rdjan, S., ‘The Kraton in the Javanese Social Structure,’ in Soebadio, H. and C. A du Marchie-Sarvaas, Dynamics of Indonesia History, Amsterdam, New York, and Oxford: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1978: p.222. Giddens showed that modern society is characterized by time- space distantiation and disembedding mechanisms. Traditional society is based on direct interaction between people living close to each other. Modern societies stretch further and further across space and time using mass media and interactive media. See Anthoni Giddens. The constitution of society, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 423 Legge, A. D., op. cit., p.20. Legge, A. D., op. cit., p. 240. Cited from A. Kusno, Behind the Postcolonial, London and New York: Routledge, 2000, p. 54. Wiryomartono, A. B. P., op. cit., p. 159. See Boddy, T., The Political Uses of Urban Design: The Jakarta Example, in D. Webster ed., The Southeast Asian Environment, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1983. Also A. Kusno, op. cit., p. 51. Karl Jackson writes The truly powerful man is the one who sits motionless while his enemies energetically posture and exercise their power, giving the evidence that they are so weak that they are forced to make the first move, dissipating their power rather than concentrating it. Quoted from Schwarz, A., A Nation in Waiting. Indonesia in the 1990s, Allen Unwin, 1994, p. 46; see also Jackson, K., The Political Implications of Structure and Culture in Indonesia, in Political Power and Communications, eds. Jackson, K. and L. Pye, p.41 Abeyasekere, S., op. cit., p. 237. Taken from the poem Song of a Bottle Beer by W.S. Rendra, trans. H. Aveling, State of Emergency, Sydney: Wild and Wolley, 1980, p. 67. Simulacra refer to simulation that is no longer that of a referential being or substance. It is the generation by models of a real without origin or reality. See Poster, M., Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings, Polity, second edition, 2001, p. 169 As quoted in Kellner, D., Jean Budrillard: From Marxism to Postmodernism and Beyond, Polity Press, 1989, p. 78 In Indonesia public sector is an illusion unless the tax system is reformed; firstly, because tax system has not yet an effective instrument for government revenue; secondly, the government is a wealthy sector because it has its various modes business and corporations that are beyond public control. Meffesoli calls this social formation as groupism. See M. Maffesoli, The Time of The Tribes. The Decline of Individualism in Mass society, London, Thousands Oaks, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1996, p, 65, especially Chapter 3. McGee, T., ‘The Future of the Asian City: The Emergence of Desakota Regions”, Proceeding International Seminar and Workshop on the Southeast Asian City of the Future, January 21-25, 1990, Jakarta, Indonesia, pp. 10-19; and also McGee, T., ‘Urbanization of Kotadesasi ?Evolving Pattern of Urbanization in Asia”, in F.J. Costa et.al. eds.. Urbanization in Asia: Spatial Dimensions and Policy Issues. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989, pp. 93-108. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 424 The term Cybercity itself is somewhat controversial since the term cyber refers to a concept that is not confined to a physical dimension, such as dimensions in space, time, bureaucracy, country, and institution. Jakarta Cybercity is projected for a dwelling place of some 250,000 residents. In addition to being a dwelling place, the city will also provides hi-tech hospitals, malls, recreation centres, office spaces, education centres. The initial 10 hectares of the Cybercentre is planned for the construction of research centre, software centre, and multimedia centre. Yuliawan, K., Soeryadjaya s Dream, Gatra, Number 20VI, April 1, 2000, http:www.gatra.comenglishVI20LPT5-20.html; Leonie Sandercock maintains that “[if] city dwelling is in part about the importance of memory and belonging, it is also about pleasures of anonymity and of not having to belong. These are closely related to desire, to sexual desires and fantasies.” Sandercock, L., ‘Towards Cosmopolis: Utopia as Construction Site,’ AD Journal, 1998, pp. ii-v. Detailed publications on coastal cities are lacking as to compare with those of cosmic inland. See Geertz, C., Peddlers and Princes. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1963. Wheatley, P. Nagara and Commandery. Origins of the Southeast Asian Urban Traditions, Department of Geography, Research Paper Nos. 207-208 Double Number, The University of Chicago, 1963, p.5. Wheatley, p., ¬op. cit., 1963, p.6. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 425 MATERIALIZING ENVIRONMENTALLY ORIENTED CITY 1 I Made Benyamin 2 Abstract Historically a city generally develops in fertile low land so that it supports an environment for human life. Therefore, many megapolitan cities are in low area near the coast. The city then develops to become a center for economic activities: production, commerce, services, center for education, health services, politic, socio-culture, etc. It is estimated that in 2008 more than a half of world population, namely 3,3 billion people will live in urban area. The number keeps increasing to 5 billion in 2030. This is due to the flow of urbanization since the city has a strong appeal viewed from various aspects. The environment potential support of urban area tends to decrease is marked by people force in using the marginal land into urban area such as very high slope land, river bank, sea shore, rail way side and so on by ignoring the regulations. The city changes to inhumanistic place, survive in the slums, surface water and ground water and polluted air, traffic jam and many other inconveniences.. Therefore, implementing the Summit Conference accord on Environment and Development Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, is not only a choice but a need and a must in urban area. Sustainable development is an integrated process of economic, ecological, and socio-cultural aspects resulting in the improvement of the people’s welfare continuously. No one of these aspects can be ignored, if we want the environmental functions work such as environment as a resource supplier, a goods supplier, amenity, and waste assimilator. The existence of slums in the city is due to a lack behind of social overhead of capital SOC as a responsibility of the government to directly productive activities DPA. The gap can be overcome when there is a long term development plan which is transparent, followed consequently from generation to generation of authority in the city. Realizing the backwardness from developed countries, there are dynamic efforts in developing countries to improve economic activities of the community. However, the limit is unavoidable, namely optimum economic 1 Paper presented in International Seminar on The Knowledge City: Spirit, Character, and Manifestation, held in Medan on November 13-14, 2007. 2 Lecturer at the School of Economics and Head Study Program of Resource Economics, Graduate Program, Hasanuddin University, Makassar. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 426 when a waste graphic curve crosses with environmental assimilative capacity. When this economic activity is going on, the amount of waste in the environment exceeds the ability of environment to assimilate the waste. This process will have a negative impact on the functions of environment. To overcome the problem, the urban area has to reduce the quantity and quality of waste get into the environment. On the other hand, there must be an effort to improve the assimilative capacity of environment, for instance, city greening to reduce the air pollution. Poverty in urban area is closely related to various aspects of environment, criminality, social unrest, etc. Therefore, the framework of Millennium Development Goals – Based Poverty Reduction Strategy must be a priority in urban area. The poverty problem must be a serious attention. The problems are due to the unavailability of job opportunity, unprepared infrastructures, settlement, and public service. Ignoring the migration phenomenon means ignoring the needs for cheap houses for poor population resulting in the mushrooming of slums.

I. INTRODUCTION

Since Carson 1962 published his book, Silent Spring, attention to the aspect of environment on development not only in the United States but also allover the world. Even the former US vice president Al Gore, wrote in the preface edition of the book in 1994 as follows: “The world cannot only be changed by experienced politician, generals, and military dignitaries, but also by the writing of a woman” Rachel L. Carson. The Al Gore’s statement is not an exaggeration when America established The Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 which was really inspired from Carson’s book. And since 1962, The American Congress has kept on doing studies, registration, and informed new standards in production and the use of pesticides in agricultural sector. America did not want to have environmental damage again due to past mistakes in the use of DDT dechloro- diphenyl-trichloroethane in preventing plant pest. Further development happened in April 1968 under the initiative of Dr. Aurelio Pecci to hold a meeting in Rome resulting in a thought The Limit to Growth. Not long afterwards in 1987 the environmental aspect became the world attention when the United Nations Organization established the World Commission on Environment and Development chaired by a woman named Bo Brrundland and this commission is known as Brrundland commission which reported its work in 1990. The gist of the report and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 427 is the importance of environmental problem in each development effort. This thought is in line with the Stockholm Declaration 1972 : “In order to achieve a more rational management of resources and thus to improve the environment, states should adopt an integrated and coordinated approach to their development planning so as to ensure that development is compatible with the need to protect and improve the human environment for the benefit of their populat ion.” Principle 13 The peak of World awareness toward the importance of environmental problem is the organization of The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNCED in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 producing a well-known Agenda 21. This Agenda produced The National Council for Sustainable Development NCSD tied the world to implement environmentally oriented development. With this concept, the development effort and environmental problem are two inseparable aspects but integrated effort Principle 4. This means that in each planning and development implementation there must be aspects of environment in it. This kind of development effort is known as Sustainable Development. Globally this sustainable development is one of the seven global issues. The other six issues are global climate change, ozone depletion, population, preservation of biological diversity, deforestation and desertification and safeguarding oceans and water resources. Materializing sustainable development means development in which economic, ecological, socioeconomic, and socio-cultural aspects are integrated. If one of the aspects is ignored in development planning, the realization of development is unsustainable. The concept of sustainable development is done in all development field including urban development planning. More emphasis on urban area because urban population is relatively dense as a center for production industry activities producing industrial waste and a center for education, health, socio-culture, politic, tourism, security, transportation, etc. The complex multifunction of city, interdependence of socio-cultural, security, and economic aspects needs to be planned to realize urban sustainable development resided by dignified human that can grow and d evelop to glory as Almighty God’s creation.

II. CITY POSITION IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The meaning of sustainable development as integration of economic, ecological, and socioeconomic and socio-cultural aspects can be illustrated in the following figure: and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 428 SOCIO- CULTURE B D A ECONOMY ECOLOGY C A = Sustainable Development; B = social Development; C = nvironmental Dev. And D = People Centered Development. Fig.1. Sustainable Development: Integrated aspects of Economy, Ecology, and Socio-culture. The figure shows only one space A indicating the integration of economic, ecological, and socio-cultural aspects. The space fills the concept of sustainable development. If the economic and ecological aspects are integrated, the concept is called environmental development C which views the environmental function as a resource supplier for production process in economic activity. If economic aspect and socio- cultural aspect is integrated B, the concept is called social development, meaning that development is an effort to improve welfare without considering the aspect of environment. If ecological aspect and socio-cultural aspect are integrated, the concept is called people centered development emphasizing harmonization of human relation with its environment, but ignoring the achievement of economic progress. As an example in ethnic Kajang in South Sulawesi, ethnic Baduwi in West Java, unacculturated tribal groups sometimes refuse their villages to build power network, because they are afraid of it as a new power in their environment. Some of them also do not allow the building of transportation to their area because they think it will damage their harmonization with their environment. In order to know more the concept of sustainable development and its relation to the concept of urban development, the following diagram shows the detail. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 429 Number quality Human Recycling Income, taste Etc. Cultivation Conservation Rehabilitation Exploitation Raw Material Recycling Waste - + + Waste Waste - Waste A W A W Environment as Waste Assimilator A Manpower PRODUCTION DISTRIBUTI ON CONSUMTI ON E=R.S E=GOODS SUP. E= Amenity Fig. 2. Detail Concept of Sustainable Development Fig. 2 shows the concept of sustainable development as the integration of economic, ecological, and socio-cultural aspects. From the economic aspect, there are three activities: production, distribution, and consumption. From the ecological aspect there are four environmental functions: as a resource supplier E=R.S, goods supplier E=GOODS SUP., amenity E=Amenity, and waste assimilator A. Viewing from the socio- cultural aspect, the existence of human comprises number, quality, income, taste, culture, etc. The three aspects is related to one another. The flow of production at the economic aspect is mostly determined by the environmental capacity to keep its function as a resource supplier. The production of waste exists as long as there is production in spite of the human ability to do recycling. Flows of waste from distribution activities especially transportation and waste from human activities household waste will get into the environment at last. If the waste gets into the environment is less than the environmental assimilator capacity A W, the impact is still positive to its functions. On the contrary, if the waste is greater than the environmental assimilator A W, the impact is negative to its functions. As an example of the river undergoes A and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 430 W, the river cannot do its function as fish habitat, clean water supplier, etc. The higher the demand for goods and services the higher the demand for production and distribution activities; and the higher the waste production, transportation waste air pollution and household waste which have more burden to environment at the end. In this situation the role of human who has multi-dimension functions in one hand as manpower involved in production and distribution activities and involved in consumption activities on the other, has to play his role in rehabilitation, cultivation, and exploration of resources activities. The improvement of income, change of taste, and increase number of man encourage economic effort which at the end causing pressure to environmental functions. To keep on the environmental functions, the man must do their best to reduce the waste gets into their environment not to exceed the capacity of environmental assimilator. This means that before the waste is disposed to environment, the first thing to do is waste processing, but this is very expensive. The establishment of cities in the world is mostly in fertile low land, sea shore where environmental support to human life is adequate. Exception is found in developed cities in high land of Latin America Menno, 1992. Whereas, Sullivan 2000 viewed the urban development from the commercial center and development of transportation network. Cities located in sea shore with various economic activities and keep increasing often make the sea as the main waste bin for waste disposal. This happens since many housings in the city, restaurants, workshops, and other economic activities dispose their waste in the ditches. When rain comes, all kinds of waste flow to the sea. If the quality of water in the sea is for swimming, it contains bacteria E-coli Benyamin, 1997 causing diarrhea. The coastal water like this cannot be used for swimming location. However, since there is no much choice, those places are busy by visitors. In the long run it becomes a negative promotion for the development of tourism industry in coastal cities. Urban environment used as ditches, rivers, and other public property as waste disposal will sooner or later lose its environmental function as a water supplier, healthy air, and other environmental functions. The contemporary urban issues in Indonesia especially at the time of flood, clean water difficulty, noise, air pollution, piling up of waste and others are due to disintegration of economic, environmental, and socio-cultural aspects in urban development planning. III. ANALYSIS OF URBAN SLUM AREA Referring to Yotopoulus 1970, an urban area will improve development measured by the increase of Gross and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 431 Regional Domestic Product PDRB when there is a continuous balance in invesment between social overhead of capital SOC and direct productivity activity DPA. The concept is shown in the following diagram: 45 S 1 S 2 S 3 Cost of SOC. D 1 D 2 D 3 Cost of DPA Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 A B G C E F H Figure 3. Minimum Cost Combination of DPA and SOC. Figure 3, shows the minimum cost investment combination of DPA and SOC which can produce Gross Regional Domestic Product PDRB visualized by isoquant Q 1 , Q 2 , and Q 3 . Isoquant curve is a curve where combination dots of various levels of SOC investment with various levels of DPA investment producing the same level of PDRB. When the initial position in on A, then there is addition of SOC with S 1 S 2 cost, the surplus of SOC does not increase the output directly. It can only press the cost from DPA at the output level Q 1 in B. The low DPA cost causes profit margin and improvement of demand encouraging the increase of production to Q 2 in E. If further SOC development exists by additional of fund S 2 S 3 , the production will increase to H through F and so on. It is transparent in the implementation that when there is a new road development SOC cost increases and not very long afterward, various economic activities will be DPA cost increases such as new housing, new stores, new workshops, and others. The development of urban area like this is good, because facilities and infrastructures SOC are built first followed by economic activities of the community. Unluckily this does not always happen due to limited cost for the SOC development. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 432 The other process is when the private sector through DPA cost rapidly develop then the development is from A to C. This means that the backwardness of SOC resulting in low profit margin of the business. In the situation like this, political suppression to the government will rise to accelerate the development of SOC. If the SOC preparation increases, the DPA cost is low so that the position changes from C to E. If the process occurs again, the position will be reached in H through movement from E through G and so on. Empirically, the development happens more often in Indonesia. Economic development of community in a certain urban area through DPA cost develops very rapidly, where as the SOC development is very slow. Then flood during the rainy season, conflict to the access of going out the area, and other social problems which at the end trigger political suppression to the government to build the SOC immediately in the area. If the government realizes it later, the development of SOC , for instance, road will not be built accordingly knowing that various buildings have been built in the area. The road will be zigzag following empty spaces. When good planning is made, the cost is very expensive because there are so many permanent and semi permanent buildings to be evicted. As a concrete example, the most well-known development of Kuta beach, Badung, Bali. Viewed from the land use, Kuta coastal tourism area develops very rapidly due to dynamic agglomeration in the area. Kuta develops following Smith’s Beach Resort Model 1993, with 9 stages of development from 1943 to 1993. The ad-hoc development and use of spatial arrangement ignore the environmental support an seen from the backward of SOC from DPA. The study revealed the relationship of these two variables is very weak R 2 =0,172, time series data 1971-1993 with coefficient b is positive with very low score. The increase amount of investment Rp .1.000.000,- in tourism industry DPA is only followed by the increase in social overhead investment SOC as mush as Rp.10,- only. If the foreign tourist visiting variable is included in the regression equation, R 2 increases from 0,172 to 0,79. This indicator shows that investment in tourism industry DPA only accounts the number of foreign tourist visits without paying attention to the availability of socioeconomic infrastructures SOC which is in the long run will inflict a loss to local tourism industrial development Benyamin, 1997. The situation in Kuta Beach Resort is also found in other tourism areas and that’s why Smith 1993 made a Comprehensive Integrated Development Planning Model concept to better the tourism from Nusa Dua tourism area in Bali. The other problem that make slum areas is the lack of regulations about the minimum size of land in settlement area. Population in slum areas is often trapped in poverty, making and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 433 them sell a part of their narrow land resulting the settlement area narrower, roofs are very close to each other, etc. Inadequate regulations and weak leadership causing the community build their houses in marginal land, such as in steep land 45 , river bank, sea shore without paying attention to regulations. Urban community who lives in slum areas is like a person who is misfortunate. Fire is common. After the fire, they struggle again but unluckily fire happens again, so that they have to start again from zero.The root of all problems stated is due to the flow of urbanization. It is estimated that in 2008 half of the world population, 3.3 billion people will live in urban areas. Most of them are poor people. The same picture has happened and will happen in some big cities in Indonesia, knowing that the estimation of the Central Bureau of Statistics, urbanization reached 68 percent in 2005 or 48 percent increase in 2005. Several big cities in three provinces in Indonesia: West Java, Yogyakarta Special Territory, and Banten will have urbanization rate more than 80 percent. Whereas DKI Jakarta now has 100 percent urbanization rate with the number of population about 8,6 million. Moreover, it is estimated that the average of population who go to Jakarta in the day is 6 to 7 million people or almost close to Jakarta population. It is estimated that in 2025, Jakarta will have become one of 21 megapolitans in the world, which has population more than 10 million. Kompas, July 3, 2007.

IV. TOWARD ENVIRONMETALLY ORIENTED CITY A.

Overcoming the tendency of more waste W than the ability of Environmental Assimilator A in Urban Area The breaking of all economic activities in urban area will cause the tendency of waste W to get into the environment is greater than the ability of environment to assimilate A the waste. Theoretically, the maximum production happens when W = A. If A is supposed to be constant within a certain period, and W increases with the increase of economic activities, then the maximum production level can be visualized as follows: WA Waste W Assimilative Capacity A O Economic Activity X optimum prod. Level Fig. 4. Optimum Production Level and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 434 Because Indonesia belongs to a developing country which is trying to catch up its backwardness from other developed countries, then the economic activities must be improved. If the maximum production X level is exceeded, then W A, meaning that this will have a negative impact on the environmental functions Fig. 2 This means the dream to materialize sustainable development will never happen. Thus to increase economic activities with maintain sustainable development continuously, first, we have to lower the waste level W; second, increase the ability of environmental assimilator; and three, combination of the two by lowering the W level and increasing the A capacity. Lowering the waste level W to environment has been done, for example, by means of technical feasibility test, benefit cost ratio and feasibility of environment through environmental impact analysis AMDAL. However, in it implementation, many AMDALs are prepared just to meet the regulations of building permit. It is also found that AMDAL study is just prepared when the physical development has been started for a long time. Remember, for example, Indonesia’s failure in a million peat soils project in South Kalimantan. On the contrary, it is praiseworthy, The Denpasar Sewerage Development Project DSDP in which its AMDAL was built at the end of 1988. Although at the beginning the AMDAL of this project in Badung regency, Bali got a lot of challenges, but good socialization makes this project understood by the community. The project is the waste management in which the waste will be flowed from houses, restaurants, hotels, and other economic activities by pipes to the center of integrated waste management IPAL located in Benoa, Denpasar. Liquid waste flowed is measured like drinking water measurement at the Municipal Waterworks PDAM in Indonesia. The consumers will pay according to m3 meter of waste disposed through the waste pipes.

B. Overcoming the Slums in Urban Area due to SOC DPA

It has been mentioned previously that one of the causes of slums in urban areas is the lack of facility and social overhead of capital SOC to investment of directlly productive activities DPA. To solve the problem, urban area needs to have a long- term planning. This long-term planning must be transparent, known to public and obeyed by officials in the urban area from generation to generation. Although the SOC development for example, new roads is built step by step based on the fund available; however, since it is built consistently according to long- term urban development, slums can be avoided. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 435

C. Overcoming Urbanization Impact

The growth of urban population both naturally due to births and migration causing poverty implies to a lot of problems such as criminality, unemployment, and other socioeconomic problem. The problems are due to the unavailability of job opportunity, unprepared infrastructures, settlement, and public service. Ignoring the migration phenomenon means ignoring the needs for cheap houses for poor population resulting in the mushrooming of slums. Due to immigration, the growth of informal sector is unavoidable because formal sector cannot accommodate the existing manpower. To solve the problems, Rachmawati Kompas, July 3, 2007 proposed the following: 1 Acknowledge the rights of the poor to the city, allow migration, and prevent urban development. 2 Long-term vision in planning the use of land because SOC DPA for the use of perpetual urban space. 3 Planning integrated effort to support urbanization strategy to the future.

D. Arranging public facility

Urban public facilities need immediate attention to arrange are transportation, education, health, office, park, archeological things, sports, prison, settlement, etc. In the field of transportation, the city must prioritize public transportation which is comfortable and punctual and schedule for arrival and departure in each station. Location for Kindergarten education must be 3 km away from the center for settlement. Junior High School must be a little bit far about 5 km and Senior High School about 7 km and so on O’Sullivan, 2000. Each school must be provided with adequate buildings and sports facility. This means in the building of a school, size of location is very important. The office buildings must be in one location for efficient and effective public service. New parks must be provided besides improving the old ones. Other public facilities must also be provided and improved. V. CONCLUSION The environmental aspect must be viewed as integrated aspects in urban development. Therefore, each sustainable development effort in urban area must be studied profoundly of its economic, environmental, and socio-cultural aspects. If one of the aspects is ignored, the development will surely cause problems which will affect the environmental functions as economic resource supplier, goods and services, amenity, and waste assimilator. The result of such development will cause the malfunction of river as fish habitat, clean water supplier, and flood in the rainy season, and lowering the environmental assimilative capacity, etc. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 436 The universe is a place where human being learns a lot of things including diversity, equilibrium, and mutual dependence. When the diversity and equilibrium are in danger, life is also in danger, and social conflict occurs. Man often does not understand that respect to nature and environment means respect to diversity of life. Therefore, ecological footprint is very important to measure the extent of our effort to exploit the nature in order to stop it Harliningsih, Kompas, June 28, 2007. Therefore, there must be a serious effort to realize eco-urban, eco-village as an implementation of profound beliefs that sustainable development is not a choice, but a need. This is the basic essence of the Summit Conference on Environment and Development Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Poverty in urban area is closely related to various aspects of environment, criminality, social unrest, etc. Therefore, the framework of Millennium Development Goals MDGs-Based Poverty Reduction Strategy must be a priority in urban area. The poverty problem must be a serious attention. In eradication of poverty Chang cites Sachs: “The End of Poverty, 2005 Kompas, July 2, 2007 putting forward six strategies. First, decentralization of general management strategy to improve investment in remote areas slums in urban area; Second, conducting different kinds of training to develop the ability of the community in the field of public service; Third, developing information technology to advance the region in all sector of life; Fourth, overcoming the gap between the have and the have not; Fifth, the government must audit the wealth of officials and those who practice money laundering; Sixth, monitoring and evaluating the community investment. In line with an effort to eradicate poverty, urban area as a center for economic, education activities, etc. needs to arrange all facilities and public property as well as possible to make an effective and efficient public service. Bibliography Baumol J. William Oates E. Wallace, 1979. Economics, Environmental Policy and The Quality of Life, Prentice Hall Inc. Benyamin , I Made, 1997. Proses Pengembangan Wisata Alam dan Dampaknya pada Lingkungan. Terutama pada Aspek Sosial dan Ekonomi Studi kasus Pantai Bali, Disertasi. Tidak Diterbitkan, Program Pascasarjana, IPB, Bogor. Chaplan Jr. B.W. 1973. Natural Ecosystems, Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc., N.Y. Fauzi Ahmad. 2004. Ekonomi Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan: Teori dan Aplikasi. PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 437 Hartwick M. John Olewiler D. Nancy. 1986. The Economics of Natural Resources Use. Harper Ray.Publisher. N.Y. Menno, S. A. Mustamin. 1982. Antropologi Perkotaan. Rajawali Press. Jakarta O’Sullivan, Arthur. 2000. Urban Economics. International Edition. Fourth Edition. Irwin McGraw-Hill, New York. Pearce W. David Turner R. Kerry. 1990. Economic of Natural Resources and The Environment, Harvester Wheatsheaf, N.Y. Smith, R.A. 1993. Planning and Management for Coastal Eco- Tourism in South East Asia. Makalah dalam Seminar Nasional, Manajemen Kawasan Pesisir untuk Ekoturisme. Program Studi Magistar Manajemen, IPB, Bogor. Tietenberg, Tom. 1988. Environmental and Natural Resource Economics. Second ed., Scott, Foresman Company, Boston. Yakin, Addinul, 2004. Ekonomi Sumberdaya dan Lingkungan: Teori dan Kebijakan Penbangunan yang Berkelanjutan, Akademika Presindo, Jakarta. Yotopoulus, Pan A., J.B. Nugent. 1976. Economics of Development: Empirical Investigations. Harver International Edition. New York. ____________, Adoption of Agreements on Environment and Development. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Note by Secretary – General of the Conference, United nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, June 3 – 14, 1992. --------------------,203. Millennium Development Goals in the Pacific, Relevance and Progress, Asian Development Bank. --------------------, 2003. Poverty; Is it an issue in the Pacific?, Asian Development Bank. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 438 MULTICULTURAL HERITAGES IN A CITY AS PRODUCTIVE TOURISM PLACES Wiwik D Pratiwi School of Architecture, Planning and Policy Development, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia wdpratiwiar.itb.ac.id, http:www.ar.itb.ac.idwdp Abstract A city can be a place for productive tourism places. Bandung, for example, has become a tourists city and especially benefited from weekend visitors from Jakarta. Visitors in the city are offered attractions for leisure and consumption. The citys attractions are dominated by heritages: from pattern of street layout to the existence of a distinctive architecture, to the variety of activities to create the city itself as a visitors experience. These conditions need a deliberate attempt to create the city as multicultural places of consumption for both retail and tourism as part of urban cultural management. This paper examines the creation of the city as a tourism destination. It is argued that changes to the process of capital accumulation in many cities have led to the commodification of place at a local level. Part of this process has been the creation of heritage as a tangible asset and this is linked to changing patterns of consumer retail activity. This paper argued that tourism should not be conceptualized as a distinct activity but rather as a form of consumption in the context of both local and global changes. Keywords: heritage, consumption, tourism driven place design. Introduction: Commodifying heritage and creating tourism places The arguments developed in this paper is an effort to show that the use of heritage for the production of consumers and tourism activities, through spatial designs within global capitalizing societies, is not a source of decay or destruction if adequately planned, designed, regulated and managed. On the contrary, it can generate many cultural, economic and financial benefits, with a limited rise in operational costs. Moreover, a correct commercialization of built heritage as input for tourism activities can produce an interesting shift from a static and passive consumption of culture to a more complex and active enjoyment of heterogeneous expression of built heritages. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 439 As part of the tourism industry heritage is a cultural commodity. As the past and its meanings are ultimately intangible, the definition of heritage is debatable as it is constantly being moulded, shaped, interpreted, bought and sold by groups with varying interests. What remains constant, however, is the historical sense of place embedded in the concept of heritage. Places have meanings that are created for consumption by individuals in communities. It is in consuming the meaning of a place that the individual is linked historically and immediately to the material and social worlds in which they are embedded. People thus consume heritage to create a sense of belonging, as the invention of heritage can empower people and their communities by shaping a sense of identity Rowlands 2002. This process of creating identity relies on the interpretation of specific heritage sites or material culture, interpretations that are manipulated for specific ends. Cities with heritage sites and trends in the interpretation of history do not merely exist for nostalgia’s sake, but have a distinct relationship to the creation of present social realities. As Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1998 states, ‘heritage produces something new in the present that has recourse to the p ast’; in other words—heritage is a way of producing ‘hereness’. The ‘hereness’ produced at a site is a creation process that starts with a specific idea, site, or an invention of a site. For heritage tourism destinations the ‘hereness’ is interpreted and developed by agents or agencies from professional tourism operators for consumption by tourists and other visitors, without whom the site perhaps has no meaning. It is through the tourist’s experience that a sense of place and ‘hereness’ is formed for tourists and visitors MacCannell 1989. While a shared sense of heritage is part of the process by which groups create their own corporate or shared identity, the powerful role that place plays in the negotiation of the meaning of self can be marketed and sold to tourists seeking to create or change their own sense of identity. It is this marketability or commodification that has permitted the heritage tourism industry to prosper. Yet heritage is a mode of cultural production that relies on the past for authentication, which occurs through local materiality. Those wishing to purchase a heritage experience must receive value for money. Heritage destinations thus must have some sort of historical validation, whether ‘authentic’ or fictive, for it is this validation that provides both a use value and an intrinsic value to an experience consumed at a heritage tourism destination. In recent decades the tourism industry has co-opted heritage as a vehicle for displaying or showcasing cultural aspects of a particular nation, region or community. This trend towards the use of heritage has led to the recent attention many heritage places have received from the tourism industry, and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 440 especially sites in areas of redevelopment and economic revival. After all, a heritage destination must have both a sense of place and a compelling narrative to sell to the tourists McKercher and du Cros, 2002. Commodified Places Over the past two decades, the importance of place within advanced capitalist societies as a focus of theoretical and empirical concern has drawn attention from a variety of disciplines, from architecture Yacobi and Shechter 2005, Poesori and Adji 2005, anthropology Rotenberg and McDonogh 1993 to cultural studies Bird, Putnam, Robertson and Tickner 1994, Carter, Donald and Squires 1993 to human geography Harvey 1989, 1994; Soja 1989 and sociology Budd and Whimster 1992; Cooke 1989, 1990; Harloe, Pickvance and Urry 1990. Although offering different perspectives, a number of common issues can be identified and summarized as follows. First, spatial relations within capitalist economies have been radically restructured since the early 1970s, due in part to the decline of old industries and the growth of the service sector. This can be seen in the evident trend towards spatial decentralization, such as the putting of new retail and manufacturing developments on the outer urban fringes and the development of new growth centers of the economy based on financial and service sector employment. Second, investment capital is increasingly mobile, so that cities, towns and regions now negotiate directly with multinational corporations and institutions Mulgan 1989. Central government policies in many countries, for example, have consistently stressed the need for local councils to act less as providers of services and more as entrepreneurs in order to compete in the marketplace and sell themselves to prospective investors and employers Atkinson and Moon 1994; Fretter 1993; Harloe et al 1990. Consequently, those with assets or interests in a place find themselves engaging in place marketing strategies in competition with other places Harvey 1994. Such changes in the political economy have been matched by changes in patterns of consumption and employment. As the leisure activities shifts away from mass consumption and mass marketing package holidays towards flexible consumption and niche marketing short breaks, special events and shopping as an entertainment, places have sought actively to create themselves not only as locations of investment opportunity, but also as places of consumption in order to capitalize on the productive tourismleisure market Ashworth and Voogd 1990; Hall 1993. In this way, the urban environment itself becomes a commodity to be bought and sold not only to corporate interests but also to individual consumers. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 441 Competition between localities for inward investment has also led to the adoption of policies that encourage the development of culture and the arts Bianchini and Parkinson 1993; Griffiths 1993, which are perceived to add cultural capital in addition to other benefits that regions and more distinct localities have to offer. The existence of a lively cultural scene creates a positive image of a place with a high quality of life, which may be the factor that tips the choice in favor of investment in one place rather than another. In short, the global processes of capital accumulation are made possible by a revaluation and commodification of urban space at a local level. The processes of revaluation and commodification of place for tourism destination are not simply driven by economic criteria. The creation of tourism destinations involves a relationship of the material practices that rise the urban landscape and the symbolic meanings that are imposed upon or appropriated from it. In this way, the existence of spatial and places designs for tourism destinations occurs, that is, ways of interpreting or reading a townscape as the collections of a particular set of values Budd 1992; Duncan 1990; Harvey 1989; Zukin 1990, 1992. Although it is possible to talk of dominant images or design of place, it is important to bear in mind that symbolic value, meaning and image are not simply given but are conflicted or competed, actively involving processes and strategies of inclusion and exclusion Bourdieu 1984, 1993; Duncan 1990; Harvey 1994; Mills 1993; Robbins 1993; Rotenberg and McDonogh 1993. The creation and interpretation of these place design, therefore, depends on the prior interests or positions of dominant groups who have vested interests and control over the urban environment as much as those who are residents or visitors or tourists Meethan 1995. One particular example is provided by Ashworth 1990, who identifies four different readings of the city of Groningen: those of the architects and historians, the legislature, the planners and managers, and the tourists. As a distinct activity, tourism involves the visual consumption of signs and, increasingly, representation and staged events in which urban townscapes are transformed into aestheticized spaces of entertainment and pleasure Cooke 1990; Featherstone 1991; Jackson 1994; Lash 1990; Lash and Urry 1994; Ley 1989; Mullins 1991; Urry 1990a, 1990b. Within these places of consumption, defined by Ashworth and Tunbridge as tourism-historic cities 1990:3, a variety of activities can be pursued, such as eating, drinking, watching staged events and street entertainment and visually appreciating the heritage and culture of place. Although the creation of spatial design that emphasize the heritage of place is necessary for tourism destinations in and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 442 cities, the kinds of activity undertaken by visitors extend to more than just visual consumption and the purchase of souvenirs and services. As has been show in many tourist destination cities in Indonesia, increasingly, the boundaries between tourism, leisure and shopping have become blurred. In scholarly writing, for example, Jacobs 1993, Jansen 1989, Jansen-Verbeke 1990 and Mullins 1991 have drawn attention to the symbolic importance of heritage nostalgia in attracting shoppers who consume tangible goods as much as signs and the appearance of patterns of consumption that can be described as retail gentrification of spaces that provide the opportunity for leisurely and recreational shopping OBrien and Harris 1991:114. In this sense, the design of place consumption include not only the place itself, and the activities within it that mark it as a tourism destination with built heritages, but also indicate opportunities for a wide range of associ ated consumer’s activities. Similar to tourism as global phenomenon, the commodification of place and the activities that commercializing spaces are linked to global, national and local issues of production and consumption in which economic advantage is sought through the creation and maintenance of spatial design. In turn, this requires the exploitation of a set of values that can be read from the urban environment, part of a process that links the production of the urban townscape to the enjoyment of tourists. One of the central elements to this process is the importance of heritage as an asset in the competition for economic and cultural advantage between places. City’s Heritages and Regulating the Protection Heritage is a concept that seems to carry a plausible meaning, the transmission of cultural property from the past to the present. Although legislation protecting buildings, monuments and landscapes has been enacted in Bandung as well as Indonesia generally, it is only in recent years that a concern with the preservation of the past has achieved a broad appeal with the emergence of what Hewison 1987 has termed the heritage industry. The past two decades or so have seen significant changes to the ways in which heritage has been defined at a variety of scales, from the international to the national, regional and local Boniface and Fowler 1993; Corner and Harvey 1991; Haskell 1993; Jackson and Penrose 1993; Lowenthal 1985; Miller 1987; Samuel 1989; Short 1991; Uzzell 1989a, 1989b; Wright 1985. Although heritage has different definitions, it can be viewed as the preservation or reconstruction of material objects, which isolates them from the history through a process of recontextualization in which abstract qualities the nation, the people, the locality, the past are attributed to, or embodied in, designs of material culture and localities, designs that emphasize and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 443 the continuity of the past in the present. Ross, for example, writes that the protection of the urban environment ...emphasizes our continuity with the past, and our achievements as a nation and as a series of communities 1991:175. For example, from the late 1960s onwards, successive governments in the United Kingdom have instituted a variety of measures designed to preserve and protect certain elements of urban landscape from what are deemed to be inappropriate developments Larkham 1990; Mynors 1989; Ross 1991. In 1967, under the Civic Amenities Act, local authorities were given the power to designate certain localities as conservation areas within which development was restricted. In addition, they were also empowered to compile lists of buildings considered to be of architectural, cultural or historical importance. Since then, subsequent regulations have reinforced this legislation, and the number of conservation areas and listed buildings has risen dramatically. The rapid growth of protected areas and buildings was due to a number of factors. Urban heritage is a commodity perceived to be under threat at both a national and local scale due to the spatial restructuring and in terms of aesthetics as a reaction against the perceived uniformity of modernist archi- tecture resulting in the emergence of postmodern styles of building that emphasize local and regional vernacular styles, the aestheticization of the past Cooke 1990:54. The creation of heritage can, therefore, be seen as an attempt to establish historical identity in the face of global change. A shift of focus from prestige buildings and monuments to the vernacular and a associated intensity of the elitist aspects of history as scholarship, its spreading appeal to a mass audience, and the emergence of heritage as a form of mass consumption. Given the contested nature of a nation s heritage Samuel 1989; Corner and Harvey 1991, this is hardly surprising. The significance of the regulations perhaps lies more in the institutional frameworks they established and the dominant values that they encapsulated. As this section has shown, the development of heritage and tourism as linked phenomena comprises the following interrelated elements: first, the spatial restructuring of commercialization andor capitalism and the decline of industries; second, the competition between localities for investment; third, the commodification of the built environment in which heritage became a tangible asset; and fourth, the emergence of heritage as enterprise. These elements, in turn, were aided by the introduction of regulations that sought to protect the urban environment. Changes of this sort, however, are mediated by locally specific conditions and locally specific strategies for the preservation, control and exploitation of the heritage of place. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 444 Bandung: Heritages and Consumption Bandung is now one of the most important tourism destinations in Java particularly, and Indonesia generally. After the operationalisation of Cipularang toll-road which links the City of Bandung and Jakarta, an estimated of 1.9 million visitors each year come to Bandung for week-ends and especially shopping Badan Pusat Statistik Bandung 2005, http:www.bandung.go.idimagesdownloadBAB8_BDA2005.pdf page 255. As well as being the site of events, the city of Bandung also contains the tangible evidence of a long history. The historic core of Bandung City contains a wealth of built heritages. A street pattern that dates from the colonial era, and a variety of architectural types and styles from the early 19th century to the present. These distinct features of Bandung that mark it out as different and in some senses unique and from which are derived spatial designs of place. Recently, among the more well-known attractions for the visitors are the factory outlets along the Dago street which originally built for housing in colonial era. The Bandung city history dates from 1488 when the first reference to Bandung exists. But from ancient archeological finds, we know the city was home to Australopithecus, Java Man. These people lived on the banks of the Cikapundung in north Bandung, and on the shores of the Great Lake of Bandung. Flint artifacts can still be found in the Upper Dago area and the Geological Museum has displays and fragments of skeletal remains and artifacts. The Sundanese were a pastoral people farming the fertile regions of Bandung. They developed a lively oral tradition which includes the still practiced Wayang Golek puppet theatre, and many musical forms. There is a city called Bandung, comprising 25 to 30 houses, wrote Juliaen de Silva in 1614. The achievements of European adventurers to try their luck in the fertile and prosperous Bandung area, led eventually to 1786 when a road was built connecting Jakarta, Bogor, Cianjur and Bandung. This flow was increased when in 1809 Louis Napoleon, the ruler of the Netherlands, ordered Governor General H.W. Daendels, to increase defenses in Java against English. The vision was a chain of military defense units and a supply road between Batavia and Cirebon. But this coastal area was marsh and swamp, and it was easier to construct the road further south, across the Priangan highlands. The Groote Postweg Great Post Road was built 11 miles north of the then capital of Bandung. With his usual terseness, Daendels ordered the capital to be relocated to the road. Bupati Wiranatakusumah II chose a site south of the road on the western bank of the Cikapundung, near a pair of holy and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 445 wells, Sumur Bandung, supposedly protected by the ancient goddess Nyi Kentring Manik. On this site he built his dalem palace and the alun-alun city square. Following traditional orientations, Mesjid Agung The Grand Mosque was placed on the western side, and the public market on the east. His residence and Pendopo meeting place was on the south facing the mystical mountain of Tangkuban Perahu. Thus was the Flower City born. Around the middle of the l9th Century, South American cinchona quinine, Assam tea, and coffee was introduced to the highlands. By the end of the century Priangan was registered as the most prosperous plantation area of the province. In 1880 the rail line connecting Jakarta and Bandung was completed, and promised a 2 12 hour trip from the blistering capital in Jakarta to Bandung. With this life changed in Bandung, hotels, cafes, shops sprouted up to serve the planters who either came down from their highland plantations or up from the capital to play in Bandung. The Concordia Society was formed and with its large ballroom was the social magnet for weekend activities in the city. The Preanger Hotel and the Savoy Homann were the hotels of choice. The Braga street became the promenade, lined with exclusive Europeans shops. With the railroad, light industry flourished. Once raw plantation crops were sent directly to Jakarta for shipment to Europe, then primary processing could be done efficiently in Bandung. The Chinese who had never lived in Bandung in any number came to help run the facilities and vendor machines and services to the new industries. Chinatown dates from this period. In the first years of the present century, Pax Neerlandica was proclaimed, resulting in the passing of military government to a civilian one. With this came the policy of decentralization to lighten the administrative burden of the central government and Bandung became a municipality in 1906. This turn of events left a great impact on the city. City Hall was built at the north end of Braga to accommodate the new government, separate from the original native system. This was soon followed by a larger scale development when the military headquarters was moved from Batavia to Bandung around 1920. The chosen site was east of City Hall, and consisted of a residence for the Commander in Chief, offices, barracks and military housing. By the early 20s the need for skilled professionals drove the establishment of the technical high school that was sponsored by the citizens of Bandung. At the same time the plan to move the and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 446 capital of the Netherlands Indies from Batavia to Bandung was already mature, the city was to be extended to the north. The capital district was placed in the northeast, an area that had formerly been rice fields, and a grand avenue was planned to run for about 2.5 kilometers facing the fabled Tangkuban Perahu volcano with Gedung Sate at the south end, and a colossal monument at the other. On both sides of this grand boulevard buildings would house the various offices of the massive colonial government. Along the east bank of the Cikapundung River among natural scenery was the campus of the Technische Hoogeschool, dormitories and staff housing. The old campus buildings and its original landscaping reflect the intelligence of its architect Henri Maclain Pont. The southwestern section was reserved for the municipal hospital and the Pasteur Institute, in the neighborhood of the old quinine factory. These developments were carefully planned down to the architectural and maintenance details. These years shortly before World War II were the golden ones in Bandung and those alluded to today as Bandung Tempoe Doeloe. The war years did little to change the city of Bandung, but in 1946, facing the return of the Colonial Dutch to Indonesia, citizens chose to burn down Bandung in what has become known as Bandung Lautan Api, Bandung Ocean of Fire. Citizens fled to the southern hills and overlooking the ocean of flames penned Halo Halo Bandung, the anthem promising their return. Political unrest colored the early years of Independence and consequently people flocked to Bandung where safety was. The population skyrocketed from 230,000 in 1940 to 1 million by 1961. Economic prosperity following the oil boom in the 70s pushed this further so that by 1990 there were 2 million inhabitants. Present day Bandung is thriving. As home to more than 50 schools of higher education, there is a vibrant collegiate atmosphere. The Institut Teknologi Bandung is well-known in Indonesian education; the Universities of Padjadjaran and Parahyangan receive students from all over the country. The National Hotel Institute, the National Railway Institute, the Senior Officers Military Institute, the Womens Police Academy, complete the education facilities in the city. The excellent fine arts offerings have produced an artist colony of excitement. In 1987 the city extended its administrative boundaries toward a Greater Bandung Plan Bandung Raya Plans for the city include higher concentrations of development outside the current city centre, in an attempt to dilute some of the population density in the old core. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 447 There can be little doubt that the Alun-alun of Bandung has been an outstanding commercial success and has been much imitated. A spatial design of the city centre surrounding Alun-alun is not as a survival but as an immediate experience, an imitation of the past. Although this raises questions concerning the nature of authenticity, what is also significant here is the explicit linking, or exploitation, of heritages as a form of entertainment and commercial enterprise, representing the emergence of a new form of consumption, heritage as entertainment. With the development of tourist’s attractiveness to the heritages of urban Bandung, numerous guided tours and walks of the city had been one of the growing areas of tourism activity within the city. Activities such as these are, like the large attractions, creating the city as a place of spectacle and entertain- ment, inscribing particular stories or narratives on the urban form through a specific reading of the citys heritage. The development of the Bandung city as a tourist destination can thus be seen as a process that had three distinct phases, through which the city has changed function from a place of production to a place of consumption through the revaluation of the urban environment and the creation of distinct spatial designs. In addition to the planned and unplanned changes that have occurred to the revaluation of the city in terms of its townscape, and the rise of heritage as attractions and mass entertainment, there have been equally significant changes to the pattern of retail trade. Although tourism can be isolated as a distinct form of consumption in some respects, in others it should be regarded as part of the overall pattern of consumption evident in contemporary society, the revaluation and commodification of the city itself as an arena of consumption. This can be seen in the changes that have occurred to the retailing profile of Bandung, as already noted, forms of retail gentrification are often associated with tourism activities. Shopping Around In common with many other towns and cities, certain kinds of retail activity, most notably convenience goods, formerly within the city relocated to out-of-town and greenfield sites Bridges 1976. While the city was receiving ever increasing numbers of visitors, there was also a corresponding rise in retail outlets dealing with comparison goods. These changes to the nature of retail trade within the city center can be seen as a direct result of the increase in tourist numbers. It is recognizable that without the volume of visitors the city received, it would probably not have the range of shopping facilities it enjoys today. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 448 Figure 1. Map of Bandung and the pattern of street layout. Source: http:wikitravel.orgenBandung There was a tendency for specialist or comparison shops to be clustered in the vicinity of the different zones within the city, Jalan Cihampelas is “jeans street”, Jalan Dago is factory outlets street, etc. The levels of trade in those zones are above the national average and that the turnover of floor space for and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 449 recreational goods is above the national average, all of which are attributed to the demands of tourists especially the week-enders from Jakarta. In the meantime, the city center of Bandung and the shops therein seem to indicate a certain affluence, though whether this is a reflection of Bandungs inhabitants or its visitors is open for question. Despite this apparent success, retailing of all kinds faces continuous pressure to satisfy the demand of tourists and visitors. In order to respond to this, the entrepreneurs have instituted creative strategies in order to maintain their own shops and Bandungs position in the retail hierarchy. The way each tourists- driven-retails responding is to compete on different terms by making shopping in their particular shop a special experience: a combination of its unique environment, cultural, administrative and particular facilities coupled with improved and expanding shopping facilities that would provide an unbeatable. The revaluation and commodification of the townscape is, therefore, seen as a response not only to the demands of the tourism market, but also to the demands of creative retail strategies. Much of the charm of the Bandungs townscape stems from its shops because by virtue of the positive nature of retailing they lend it a visual variety and liveliness which forms attractive places to the distinct of the architectural pieces. With the day-to- day needs of the population being increasingly serviced by supermarket developments, the center of the city has become a spatial design of consumption that involves both the pursuit of leisure shopping and sightseeing, which also reflects current trends within the retail sector as a whole. Bandung city center, now facing competition from out-of- town centers and other tourism-destinations-zones, often seek to combine shopping, entertainment and leisure facilities with local and regional heritage themes, which, in effect, creates distinctive designs of place. One such is the Dago Street, a discount factory retail outlet built adjacent to a university campus and zoo. In Jalan Riau, designed in heritage style factory outlet as well as Chinese atmosphere shop, seeking to combine images of the built heritages with contemporary consumption. In other cases, idiosyncratic elements are added in order to emphasize the uniqueness of place, such as the provision of many eating facilities at the front of he factory outlets as well as mini open-air market. These developments represent the emergence of new spaces of consumption that are dependent on the attraction of a heritage theme for their economic viability. Both have been built on land that was formerly occupied by small workshops and warehousing and, although new, the style of architecture and design is overwhelmingly that of the past. The paving in both cases is constructed from the materials favored by the particular and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 450 company, the shopfronts are constructed in pseudo-colonial style, offering a postmodern pastiche of an imagined colonial era; both are paved in traditional materials and furnished in heritage style. However, none of these developments would have been possible without the active encouragement of the local council. It is clear that in regard to the development of the city center, the council exert considerable control over not only the physical appearance of the townscape, but also to the pattern of activities, such as allowing street entertainers and buskers to perform, that are carried out within it. Conclusions The city of Bandung can be seen as a microcosm of recent changes to the urban environment that work on a variety of spatial scales, from the global to the national, regional and local. The processes that gave rise to the production of the townscape of Bandung, and by extension to other towns and cities, have now become subsumed and revalued under the production of a national and local heritage in which the processes of history are commodified and organized as designs of objects and spaces for leisure consumption. Although a reflection of national trends, in particular the growth of heritage as entertainment, spectacle and mass consumption, the production of these tourism destination designs is mediated at a local level through the actions of the local entrepreneurs and other stakeholders, such as property developers and those in the heritage industry. The intrinsic demand of tourist destination uniqueness have been able to exert aesthetic controls over the environment, as well as the activities that take place within it, in a deliberate attempt to create the city as a site of consumption for both retail and tourism. The relation between these two activities can be seen in the ways in which the designs of place that emphasize the city as a place of the past, of heritage, have been used by property and retail developers in their attempts to ensure economic success, and the ways in which retailing is viewed by the entrepreneurs as an activity that contributes to the overall vitality of the city center. Tourists and shoppers visiting Bandung are offered a series of tourism destination designs in which heritage dominates, from the pattern of street layout to the existence of a distinctive architecture, to the variety of activities and spectacles that seek to create the city itself as an experience, to the gentrified retail outlets — in short, as a series of opportunities for leisure and consumption. Developments such as Dago Street are, however, pedagogic in intent, bound in the same patterns of production and consumption as much as the developments of Cihampelas, the same processes of aestheticizing and commodifying the past as both an experience and a consumable object: neither is reducible and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 451 to the other. Inasmuch as tourism involves the consumption of space, time and signs, so too do the activities associated with shopping in the tourism-destinations city. Acknowledgements This paper is an elaboration of previous writing within the topic of planning process and tourism. The author gratefully acknowledges the continuing supports of all colleagues in the “Centre for Tourism Research” and “Housing Settlement Research Group”, the Architecture Study Program, Institut Teknologi Bandung as well as the Jagaddhita members. Bibliography Ashworth, G and Tunbridge, J 1990 The Tourist-Historic City, Belhaven Press, London. 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ICOMOS Information.Vol. 3 Zukin, S 1995 The Cultures of Cities, Blackwell, Cambridge MA. Zukin, S. 1990 Socio-Spatial Prototypes of a New Organization of Consumption: The Role of Real Cultural Capital. Sociology, 24: 37-56. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 454 SPIRIT ACCULTURATION OF TANGERANG CITY EXISTENCE Hinijati Widjaja Lecturer of Landscape Architecture Trisakti University Indonesia www.hinijatiwidjajaplasa.com Abstract This paper is the urban anthropological review, by using an approach related to the reward and consideration towards cultural heritage in the modernization of Tangerang city, and alteration towards community’s environment, as a separate life unity in the old city of Tangerang. VOC of Netherland had inheritance water block building such as fortress, which in the past, Japan has destroyed most part of Tangerang city, China arrived on 1700’s continuously from the Fukkien, and also spread out knowledge during trading, and also expanding new areas, developing housing areas, and also socializing meaningful symbols related to Betawi, Sunda, and Javanes Ethnics which has resided there. In the developing of Tangerang city, also considered as the centre city of the Republic of Indonesia, and characteristics of the Tangerang city, occurred in a developing manner. And also has experienced several developments in the history of Tangerang city. The year of 2000, has occurred the expansion of Tangerang city into municipality. Thus, Tangerang city has become more developed and the commercial areas also highly developed not to mention the increased number of industries. And the main road of the city which lies from North to West, with the consideration to fulfill the efficiency of time and distance requirements. Therefore, also impacted towards the city physical form, which became more modernized. However, it appears that, the physical development of Tangerang city has ignored the characteristics pattern of the cultural heritage, as the inheritance of the ancient, which somewhat eroded, without considering and respecting the whole heritage of the city in the past context. For instance, the old market China Town Pecinan and Karawaci in the Center City of Tangerang. Which also evidenced as the disintegration towards an importance which caused the eroded of the spirit and the characteristics of the city itself. Key Words: Urban Anthropological of Tangerang City, Spirit Acculturation. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 455 INTRODUCTION Background Urban development is highly developed, despite any consideration of cultural and historical elements, which cause the vanished image of a city. The preservation of a historical area perceived not only as the past romanticism, nor the anti- development or modernization, however, to provide the idea of a critical area development towards environment, by considering area’s potentials inheritance of the past. Experiences of the developed countries showed that, old buildings have tourism potentials and tourisms existence plays a major role in increasing the country’s cash revenue. In developing Tangerang city as the base of the capital city of the Indonesian Republic. Which its characterizes not inherently occurred and developed, however it evolves and experienced several concrete developments in the history of Tangerang city, which was related to other countries such as : VOC of Netherland that heritance water dams, and several forts, which robustly built and known as the Makassar Fort. Thus, with the arrival of Japanese, which destructed several infra structures and Tangerang city files. The Japanese arrival has caused a drastic decline towards city quality and the remain heritage of the Netherland was the water dam. On 1700, Chinese population migrated from the Fukkien of China, which brought trading knowledge, opened and developed the housing areas, and also socializing life meanings which applied on the old town which also known as the China Town. The arrival of China population has contributed the development and has altered the Tangerang city into a more colorful city, which will leads an identity, a city that was built and patterned based on the Chinese Philosophy. The development of Tangerang city is closely related to the base history. The current development, without considering the form of heritage in the past, which breed an area of highly impacted by the history. Tangerang city has experienced a cultural degradation which also eroded the acculturation spirit of a city, which also known as the cultural characteristics itself. The current development as the basic changes of Tangerang City to support Jakarta city, and also to covered th migration flows, urban industrialization and also to achieve a modernization. Objective The objective of this paper is to observe about the anthropologic aspect of the Tangerang city, by using an approach related to the reward, cultural heritage consideration in the city modernization, and also understanding the human living area as a living unity of the old town of Tangerang. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 456 A glance of Tangerang city History A glance of Tangerang city history is rather difficult to be separated to the old town area, which is Pasar lama on the side of the Cisadane river, which is the first housing area of Chinese population in Tangerang city. Foreigners arrived to invade and to take over cities of Tangerang, which at that moment, there were inhabitant such as Sundanese, Betawi and Javanese. Netherland was the first that ruled the Batavia, which later came out also ruled the Tangerang city which at that moment the name was still unknown. Netherland VOC built many forts by the Cisadane riverside. However, unfortunately, until this very moment, those forts has been destroyed by the time of Japan’s arrival, the only remain fort of Netherland is several water dams with height of 15m, which also functionalized to supply drinking water of the Tangerang people. The name of Tangerang city is closely related to the history of Tangerang city formation. Based on the 112 manuscript which was arranged by S. Suradiningrat, the name of Tangerang named after the “tanggeran” which means “tanda” in Sunda language or a sign. This sign then was built as the sign of the territorial border of Banten Region which ruled by the Hindia Belanda. That sign could also be seen on the West side of Cisadane river or on the down road of Otto Iskandardinata Street, Kowang Jaya region, Kecamatan of Gerendeng. Thus, the name of Tanggeran al tered into “tangerang”, which was changed due to the pronunciation influence of “ng” of Ambon ethnic and Makassar in Tangerang. While according to the encyclopedia of Van Nederlandch book, 1971 : 273, which referred to the fort is forts built by the Netherland troops by the Cisadane riverside, lies along the Pakulonan to Tangerang city. Those forts were built around the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, on the fall of Banten people to several areas ruled by the Netherland. After netherland successfully ruled the Tangerang city in 1684, thus, arose several housing areas around the forts such as Kampung Gerendeng, Kampung Karawaci, and Kampung Kalipasir. Those three areas were finally established as the capital city of Tangerang , which followed by the Japanese troops destroyed part of the Tangerang city, after the Japanese troops fled Tangerang, then, Chinese people arrived continuously, along with their cultural values, and interacting with local people. Thus, Tangerang city established as the Tingkat II regional area on 27 th February 1993 and has settled the Kotamadya Municipality as the capital city on 2001. Land Uses in Tangerang City Based on Undang-Undang Number 2. of 1993 related to the Tangerang city formation, administratively have several city borders such as : and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 457 North : Tangerang region Kecamatan of Teluk Naga and Sepatan South : Tangerang Region Kecamatan of Curug, Serpong and Pondok Aren West : Pasar Kemis Region and Cikupa East : DKI Jakarta West and South of Jakarta city Tangerang city with length of 17,729,746 Ha, and the population on 2003 of 1,487,000, and the population density of 9,037 lifekm 2 , the city physical growth showed the length of city built, which is 12,331 hectare 68 of whole city, thus, the strategic remain of the city will be conditioned into the developed city, therefore, there are still many lands left which could be used as the housing area and spread along the Tangerang city. The fast growth of Tangerang city also supported by the existence of International Airport of Soekarno Hatta which part of its area included into the Tangerang city administration, and the gate of Indonesian air transportation area also offered an opportunity towards a widely development of trading activity and services. Along with the kecamatan expansion, the regional area and villages were also expanded, which also accelerated the Tangerang city development and to follow the development of Jakarta city. Initially, in Tangerang city, there were only 20 Kelurahan and 37 villages, thus, after the expansions, there are 87 Kelurahan and 17 villages data of PMA-PMDN Tangerang city of 2002. The expansions and status increase of several villages into municipalities was aimed to increase the service towards community. The regional land planning RTRW and The Detailed regional land planning RDTR showed that, the land uses of Tangerang city consists of : housing 5,988 Ha; industry 1,367.1 ha, trading and service 608.1 Ha; agricultural 4,467.8 Ha; Sukarno-Hatta Airport 1,816.9 Ha; others 819.4 Ha; unused 2,66.4 Ha. According to Couch, urban area have an un static characteristic, which altered constantly, whether related, expanded or internal restructured as the respond of several economic and social pressures. Process of how extent the changes impacted, the development will influence physical structure and urban renewal, could be perceived as the physical changes or function changes or the land and building uses intensity, which could no longer be avoided as the influence of the economic activity and social pressure towards the city. And also according to Simond 1998 in a wide meaning, the renewal of a city, is an effort to reconstructed several parts of big city. Initially, Tangerang city development was sacrificing the physical appropriateness and city features, because the industrial sector could overuse the land and fresh air for public use, even, and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 458 the tourism sector development also has forgot about the community’s culture, which could be used as the area potential. According to Simond 1998, city formation is an expression of a function which arranged in a suitable manner related to space, time and environment. A good city planning should be able to express time, technology and idealism, because city perceived as the organic unity which accorded to the past roots and oriented towards future. If we ever visited Tangerang city in the past two decades, it gives an impression a strong oriental culture, particularly in the old city, the expression of a properly structured city form, whether in time, space and the relatedness to the natural environment, fresh air, and the whole unity as an organic unity, currently, it has changed rapidly and growth into a developed city, which neglected the old town feature. With the development of Tangerang city, currently, there are many people which visit to perform many tasks, whether services or business activities, and Tangerang city was intended to perform trading and industry activities, housing center developments, even according to the Kepres Number. 54 of 1989, Tangerang should allocate 300 hectares of its lands for industrial uses. Thus, the core relationship of the existed culture, related to the city planning of Tangerang, wholly, partially, could be stated inversely. Past population has created a more meaningful and functional cultural environment, and for certain activity structures, whether maintaining a horizontal or vertical relationship, and also the land planning system, has been a tradition of local community. And if there was a change, thus, the land planning system core should be used as the base of the changes pattern. Because it appear that, the environment has been established by the city government was not always similar to the requirements, and concepts or cultural models of partial community in Tangerang city of the old town. Currently, the distribution pattern of building was randomly formed, almost un patterned, while based on the building history in the old town, the pattern was lied on the back of Cisadane river, and leads to the old praying house in the Tangerang old town, and traditional architectural of Chinese there is a building majority character of the Tangerang area. The similar condition was also occurred to the inhabitant, the understanding about housing were more acculturated with the density of city modernization, as well as the community’s living needs that lives in the old town. City government with its administrative system has formed a system of city planning which principally, arrange the land planning as well as any elements in the city, which this kind of arrangement also related to the infrastructure arrangement, sites and several housing, waste water development system, and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 459 living prosperity arrangement. Tangerang city planning development which continuously developed with no consideration from the cultural and historic roots, could lessen the image of a city. Because that sort of arrangement could not be arranged properly along the way, due to the imperfect land planning and city planning, and also due to the government officer negligence in evaluating, implementing rules and the lack of coordination inter related departments. Initially, Tangerang city was formed and built by a native inhabitant and newcomers, to fulfill several activities which perceived critical and could only be implemented the fulfillment of the urban population. In the perspective history of Tangerang city has been developed, because the population number increase and due to the service functions, whether nationally or internationally. Which occurred towards Tangerang population of the old town that less knowledgeable of the essence of the city planning, thus, the land uses of Tangerang city which were implemented by the community, whether individually or simultaneously for their own interests. Lands in Tangerang city were used to built buildings for the commercial and business, entertainment, recreation and industrial purposes, therefore, city planning was established in written in the document form., while in practice, Tangerang city has developed based on the city activities, thus, it resulted an impression that, Tangerang city has been developed, without any city planning as its guidance. Thus, any change in the Tangerang city planning in recent times, has created modern physical pattern, by using modern technologies and in modern the community’s living activities. Thus, the heritage character patterns as the old time heritage was eroded particularly in the old town, housing buildings changed into several office houses with numerous desires and fantasies of the owners, without considering the old town form of the Tangerang city which has been stated in the concept, and considered to be built based on the universal harmony by the old time community, consists of a relationship balance between human and God, balance between human and others, and balance between human and their environment. CONCLUSISON The anthropology review of Tangerang city was considering the context of Tangerang city have an influence and influenced by the foreign countries lives, such as Netherland, Japan, and China, which, finally, China people established an area which called the old town Tangerang China Town. Development of Tangerang city was occurred for almost 3 decades, and has experienced a rapid changes, and also providing positive influences towards development activities particularly towards economic activities, thus, also made this area and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 460 as the base of economic development whether nationally or by the DKI Jakarta province, however, in the development of Tangerang city, also experienced a degradation with the eroded spirit and city characteristics, which also used as the evidence as a disintegration of a purpose. Thus, in changing or creating a natural or physical environment towards a new environment, should be accorded to the cultural concepts in order to fulfill community’s requirements of Tangerang city, thus, the meaning and character of the living structure whether human or the natural environment structures could be preserved. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 461 SLUM AREA ON DELI RIVER BANK Wirsal Hasan, Edhy Mirwandono Doctoral Program of Environmental Management, University of Sumatera Utara Email: Wirsalusu.co.id, HP 0819863979 Abstract A slum is an urban settlement of makeshift houses with few or no basic services and crowded, unhealthy living conditions. Usually slums are inhabited by people who can’t afford to live anywhere else. They are often found on the outskirts of cities or in dangerous areas where no one else wants to live.They are generally neglected by governments and residents often have few of the rights of other citizens.. Although slums are labeled as ‘illegal’, in fact the people living there are very important to the economies of cities. It is their hard work that keeps industries going and drives economic growth. Urban slums may be located on the river bank, exposing residents to higher levels of water related disease and air pollution disese. Because they are unplanned, slums usually have no basic services like running water, sanitation and electricity. There are no toilets, garbage bins, street lights, roads, parks, playgrounds, schools or healthcare centres. The most serious problem that the basin is the impact of the Deli River Water on public health. There has been not only a rapid increase in the prevalence of water-borne diseases that were already known. Such problems, historically considered rural, have now become urban as well, as sprawling slum settlements along side the Deli River. Swiming use of Deli River water can have benefits to health and also adverse health effects if it is polluted or unsafe. Recreational water users may also be exposed to hazards such as excess heat, cold and sunlight. Recreational users of water may be at risk of serious and potentially fatal diseases. It’s not enough for governments to ignore slums and the millions of people that live in them. If we can work with slum dwellers to provide skills training and improve living conditions, many of the poor will find a way to change their lives forever. The objective is to work towards the upgradation of physical and social conditions through application of appropriate technologies with active participation and involvement of Government, NGO and the community for providing an improved living conditions for the inhabitants of the slum settlement. Key words: crowded, unhealthy living conditions, improved living conditions and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 462 INTRODUCTION Urbanization is a global phenomenon which results in the lack of housing provisions and settlements in the cities. The huge and unceasing demands for housing cannot be met. In the developing countries, the problem is more complex because the population growth in such countries is faster than that in the developed countries. The capability of the government or the private sectors to provide housing formally, for example in the form of real estate and housing developments, is highly limited and touches merely people from the upper and middle classes. Meanwhile, the low-income people remain untouched and leave to fend for themselves. This results in the mushrooming of informal housing areas with the characteristics of being crowded, dirty, not following formal regulations, and whose inhabitants are mostly poor. A slum is a district of a city or town which is usually inhabited by the very poor or socially disadvantaged. A slum is only based on the social-economic level of the population that live in an area. The overgrowth population of most big cities in developing countries has produced almost the same phenomena on their physical performance. Large flow of people in urbanization process has produced many slum areas. Most of these people have to recognize that they cannot afford dwellings with standard quality. Ironically most of these slum areas are in strategic location, such as in downtown, which has high-economic value. These phenomena are reasonable. Some of them work as a low-level employee at local business sector, and the others run their own business as a support for more established business in the area, and most of them are informal, such as: food stalls at illegal bazaar area. A person who lives in a slum is unable to move away from the slum because of their economic status. Slums can be found in most large cities around the world. Recent years have seen a dramatic growth in the number of slums as urban populations have increased in the Third World. According to a recent UN-Habitat report, 327 million people live in slums in Commonwealth countries - almost one in six Commonwealth citizens. In a quarter of Commonwealth countries 11 African, 2 Asian and 1 Pacific, more than two out of three urban dwellers live in slums and many of these countries are urbanising rapidly. According to the UNDP 1997 Human Development Report, and the 2004 United Nations Human Development UNHDP report, Malaysia has the highest income disparity between the rich and poor in Southeast Asia, greater than that of Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, Vietnam and Indonesia. The UNHDP Report shows that the richest 10 in Malaysia control 38.4 of the economic income as compared to the poorest 10 who control only 1.7. Kuala Lumpur as the capital of Malaysia has an increasing and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 463 number of squatters, shanty towns and slums, and is also seeing an increase in criminal acts such as snatch theft, robberies, and rape. CHARACTERISTICS The characteristics of a slum include: crime, unemployment, suicide rate, low level education, low level income and low quality housing. A slum is not based on the race, ethnicity or religion of the people in the area. Slums are usually characterized by urban blight and by high rates of poverty and unemployment. They tend to be breeding centers for many social problems such as crime, drug addiction, alcoholism, high rates of mental illness, suicide, and despair. In many poor countries they exhibit high rates of disease due to unsanitary conditions, malnutrition, and lack of basic health care. In many slums, especially in poor countries, many live in very narrow alleys that do not allow vehicles like ambulances and fire trucks to pass. The lack of services such as routine garbage collection allows rubbish to accumulate in huge quantities. The lack of infrastructure is caused by the informal nature of settlement and no planning for the poor by government officials. Additionally, informal settlements often face the brunt of natural and man-made disasters, such as landslides, as well as earthquakes and tropical storms. Many slum dwellers employ themselves in the informal economy. This can include street vending, drug dealing, domestic work, and prostitution. In some slums people even recycle trash of different kinds from household garbage to electronics for a living - selling either the odd usable goods or stripping broken goods for parts or raw materials. Though the terms are often now used interchangeably, slums and ghettos differ in that ghetto refers to a neighborhood based on shared ethnicity. Slums are also different from favelas or shanty towns, in that they consist of permanent if low-quality housing rather than less-durable shacks of cardboard or corrugated iron or newspaper. Densely populated area of substandard housing, usually in a city, characterized by unsanitary conditions and social disorganization. Rapid industrialization in 19th-century Europe was accompanied by rapid population growth and the concentration of working-class people in overcrowded, poorly built housing. MANAGEMENT PROBLEM This kind of management is really a complicated one; it involves a number of people with their own characteristics, as many as their number,most of them are low-educated, and based on-their economic difficulty they put improvement of their built- environment on the last priority. People dont get a right picture of and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 464 the resettlement process; they are not sure that the future forms of their housing will give them a better environment; and they are not sure how they can get the house based on their recent income. There are also some doubts about the feasibility of building technology applied on the projects, which is proposed using fabrication method. The technology isnt well recognized and it has made people doubt how far this technology can adapt their typical built-environment, as they need. In some countries, leaders have addressed this situation by rescuing rural property rights to support traditional sustainable agriculture, however this solution has met with open hostility from capitalists and corporations. It also tends to be relatively unpopular with the slum communities themselves, as it involves moving out of the city back into the countryside, a reverse of the rural-urban migration that originally brought many of them into the city. Critics argue that slum clearances tend to ignore the social problems that cause slums and simply redistribute poverty to less valuable real estate. Where communities have been moved out of slum areas to newer housing, social cohesion may be lost. If the original community is moved back into newer housing after it has been built in the same location, residents of the new housing face the same problems of poverty and powerlessness. The condition is the result of unsatisfactory housing management, unavailability of supporting regulations, and non-operational of housing management institutions. In addition, the land status is also a big problem.The land status is varied, mostly are state-owned land without any legal certificate, and a few are self-owned land. Their strategic locations along with the strong aim of local government to have an ideal city have made these slum areas a potential target. As it can be reflected from the above description, the complicated problem existing in the area has made the effort difficult to be implemented. Different perception of each involved party is the most handicapped factor: 1People cannot capture the real picture of what their built-environment most likely in postdevelopment era.2Government cannot see any other alternative than moving people away from the location and giving payment as compensation for their property. It seems that they cannot get the ideal model of revitalization of existing ideal concepts.3Private sectors are not convinced about the prospect of the projects in economic perspective.Hamid, 2001 EXAMPLES OF SLUM AREA MANAGEMENT 1. England passed the first legislation for building low-income housing to certain minimum standards in 1851; laws for slum clearance were first enacted in 1868. and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 465 2. In the U.S., slum development coincided with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; laws concerning adequate ventilation, fire protection, and sanitation in urban housing were passed in the late 1800s. In the 20th century government and private organizations built low-income housing and appropriated funds for urban renewal and offered low-interest home loans. 3. Diadema, Brazil, is an exclusively urban municipality with a high population density, i.e. the second highest density of the state and the third highest in Brazil. In 1983, a housing policy was started which recognised the existence of slum areas. This policy proposed the upgrading of these areas, giving the guarantee to land access and community participation. From 1989 to 1992, there were interventions in 92 slum areas, representing more than 50 of the areas existing at that time. The interventions were aimed at the access to infrastructure and urban services, concentrating on the implementation of basic infrastructure, pavement and drainage. The interventions in the initial periods were more concentrated on maintaining the maximum number of families and on upgrading the areas. Thus, instead of concluding the upgrading in concentrated areas, it was opted for a gradual approach in many years.Thus, regulatory instruments for the real estate market that facilitate the access of low income groups to this market are being created. The Democratisation of City Management: Already a lot is known about the chaotic situation of the majority of the Brazilian cities and the cities in Latin America. Its poverty, related with the lack of income and employment, basic sanitation, health and decent housing conditions, is growing; just like the rates of environmental degradation and of deterioration of the quality of life of the population. One of the suggested alternatives to confront this chaos has been to look for a Sustainable Development. A lot of experiences has been arrived at by various governments, non governmental organisations and community groups, trying to combat poverty and to recover the environmental quality. The democratisation is optimising the public investments, attending the majority of the population Diadema. 4. In 1969, 60 or at least three millions people of the 4.8 millions inhabitants of Jakarta lived in dirt-poor settlements. Confronted with such a problem, the city government then launched a kampong improvement program called the Muhammad Husni Thamrin Project, which had been a success until 1999. Finally, there was a solution to the problem of the paradigm that saw kampong as a source of problems —this solution was what Turner called ‘urban as solution’, a development model known as the participatory and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 466 development as it applied the approach of involving the community. However, in 1985 the Government of the Special Capital Territory of Jakarta changed their housing policy. They then employed a city rejuvenating program and developed high rises. Since 1993, more high rises were developed by tearing down slum areas and building high rises on the sites. Such approach is known as the technocratic development approach. Here, the community is not involved and there are no comprehensive studies. Meanwhile, the urban settlements in Jakarta grew rapidly at the beginning of the 1970s —annually, the city saw an increase of 100- 150 hectares of new kampongs alongside the crowded slum areas that had already existed before. With such a growth, the need for housing cannot be met by using the model of providing finished products.The policy of developing high-rises had been magnified between 2000 and 2006, consuming an expense of not less than one trillion rupiahs, and this policy is still applied to this day. This invites some questions: Can the technocratic approach handle the problems of slums and poverty? Can the policy of providing finished products supplies eliminate poverty as according to the target of 11 Millennium Development Goals? Does this approach befit the principles of sustainable development? There are two models of housing developments that we can choose: the model of participatory development, or that of the technocratic one. Runi Elsanti,2006.

5. The Kampong Improvement Program. The Muhammad

Husni Thamrin Project MHT grew from 1969 until 1999. International agencies such as the World Bank and UN Habitat thought of it as a successful, low-cost project that had improved the quality of life in the slums. This approach had benefited no fewer than 5.5 million inhabitants of Jakarta. Nationally, at least 15 million people living in more than 400 urban areas of Indonesia had been similarly benefited. Since the beginning, the project was meant to be an investment for humanity, or something that Melvin Mark defined as ‘social betterment’, which is defined as a social policy or social program.City managers still consider the project —which was launched in 1969 and managed to improve the reputation of Jakarta and the Indonesian government at the time —as a spot-on project in handling the problems of urban settlements. The limited funds, the myriad urban problems, and the increasing number of city dwellers were the challenges at the time and they remain so to this day. The MHT Project has not been about mere physical improvements, but about other things as well, just as Ali Sadikin, the governor of Jakarta in 1977, said, “I think that the group of city dwellers who have been forced to live in the margins of the slickly-built city are and Manifestation, Medan, 13 th - 14 th November 2007 467 the ones who need more assistance for experiencing the products of our developments.”The launch of the MHT Project in 1969 was a milestone in city management and city planning. Just like the changes in Western Europe after the industrial revolution —i.e. the changes from bureaucracy planning to advocacy planning —the MHT Project recognized kampong settlements as a part of the urban fabric. Such informal settlements were thus complemented with urban services such as the infrastructure and amenities. In 1980, the MHT Project received an award from the Aga Khan Foundation. During the Third Five-Year Development cycle of Indonesia, the central government adopted this approach and used it as a national policy to tackle the problems of urban housing and settlements. In the Second Habitat Conference in Istanbul, Turkey, in 1996, the project was still considered as the right project that could be adopted to manage the problems of settlements in developing countries. At the Cities Alliance launching in Washington, D.C., in 1999, the project was still mentioned as a reliable project. In 2004, Wolfensohn, the then World Bank President, announced it as the Global Best Practice. As Sach mentioned, to be able to tackle the problems of slum and poverty, basic urban services must be provided, especially the infrastructure, the sanitation, and clean water facilities. In the MHT Project, these are complemented with the development of education facilities elementary school buildings and health facilities Public Health Centers. Runi Elsanti,2006. 6. Policy Changes: From the Kampong Improvement to the High Rise Development. In 1985, the subdistrict of Tambora saw the city rejuvenation program, then the subdistrict of Karang Anyar followed, after a burning calamity stroke this area. The development of high rises aims to eradicate poverty and slums. What took place later on, in just a short time, was a shift in the targeted population. More than 90 of the people who lived in the high rises were the middle class people, and this meant that the government continuously subsidized the people who neither needed nor deserved the subsidy. High rises then became a monument of stacked-up slums, with the consequences that they were unsustainable and required continuous subsidies. During international city management trainings, the advice given is always not to use Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Israel as a reference for housing and settlement policies, because those countries have high GNPs and a lack of land. Their social, economic, cultural, and political backgrounds are also different from those of Indonesia.There have been no MHT Projects since 2006, while there is an increasing number of high rises. The private sectors develop luxurious housing