Kemp’s Model Kemp, 1977

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is divided into two parts; they are theoretical description and theoretical framework. Theoretical description describes some related literature that is needed to design the materials. Theoretical framework puts the concept of theoretical description as the base to formulate process in designing materials based on the Cooperative Learning approach for the sixth grade students of SD Kanisius Kanutan.

A. Theoretical Description

There are some theories involved in designing instructional materials. These theories try to give general view that can be used in real learning-teaching process. This section will be divided into two parts; they are instructional model, and Cooperative Learning.

1. Instructional Models

There are two instructional models used in the study. They are Kemp’s model and Yalden’s model. The brief explanation of the theory will be elaborated in the following discussion.

a. Kemp’s Model Kemp, 1977

According to Kemp, there are eight parts in designing an instructional design. The eight parts are flexible process. The teacher can start from any parts that are ready then move back or forth to the other parts. Eventually, however, the teachers should do most of the eight parts in the instructional design. 9 Kemp defines the instructional materials as follows. Step 1 . Defining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes Instructional design planning starts with the recognition of the broad goals of the school system or institution. The goals may be derived from society, students and subject areas. After that, the teacher should list the major topics to be treated within the content area. The teacher expresses explicitly the general purposes for the chosen topics. Step 2 . Finding out Learner Characteristics In teaching-learning process, the students are regarded as individuals and groups. In order to serve both individuals and groups, we must obtain information about the learners’ characteristics. There are two factors that should be considered in finding out the learners characteristics; those are academic and social factors. Academic factors include academic background, level of intelligence, number of students, reading level, study habit, grade-point average, scores on standardized achievement and aptitude tests, ability to work alone, motivation for studying the subject, background in the subject or topic, expectations of the course, vocational and cultural aspirations. Social factors include age, maturity, attention span, special talents, physical and emotional handicaps, relations among students and socioeconomic situation. Other factors, such as learning conditions and learning styles, should be taken into account in designing process. According to Kemp 1977: 19, learning conditions refer to “groups of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information.” 10 Step 3 . Specifying Learning Objectives Learning objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning. Kemp 1977: 24 states that learning objectives can be categorized into three categories; those are cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. However, cognitive domain is mostly used in educational program. Cognitive domain includes objectives concerning knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In planning process, the planner should consider the action verb that will be used in specifying the learning objectives because each verb relates to certain level of objectives. Step 4 . Organizing Subject Content A student’s learning experiences must involve subject content. According to Kemp 1977: 44, subject content is “the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements, and attitudinal factors of any topics.” Subject content must be related to the objectives and the learners’ needs. Subject contents support the objectives. Step 5 . Developing Pre-Assessment According to Kemp 1977: 50, pre-assessment will answer these questions: 1 is the student prepared to study the topic or unit? And 2 is the student competent in some of the stated objectives? To answer those two questions, a test is needed. There are two kinds of tests, namely prerequisite testing and pretesting. Prerequisite testing aims to gain information whether the students have appropriate preparation for the topic. The results of prerequisite testing will let the 11 teacher know who are ready to learn the topic, who needs the remedial or even who are not ready yet and should start from the beginner level. Step 6 . Planning the TeachingLearning Activities and Resources The teacher must determine the most efficient and effective methods and then select materials to provide learning experiences that will utilize the content associated with each objective. The planner should also select the media to support teaching-learning activity. According to Kemp 1977: 74, there are three reasons why selecting media is complicated. First, there are many audiovisual resources from which to choose. Second, there are no clearcut guidelines for making a selection. Third, few educators have had broad enough experiences with the resources available to have a sound basis for selecting an appropriate medium or combination of media for communicating content or providing student experiences, in terms of an objective within the chosen teachinglearning pattern. Step 7 . Organizing Support Services Support services include fundbudget, facilities, equipment, time and schedule. The planner should organize support services carefully. Budget or funds can be divided into two sections. Those are budget during development, which covers all budgets that the planner needed during the preparation of the program, and budget during implementation which covers all budgets needed when the planner implements the program. Step 8 . Evaluating Students’ Achievement In evaluation step, the teacher is ready to measure the learning outcomes relating to the objectives. In order to measure students’ achievement, the teacher should determine standards of achievement. The measurement can be in the form PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 12 of evaluation. There are two kinds of evaluation, namely formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation takes place during development and tryouts, while summative evaluation takes place at the end of the course. Evaluation also refers to the evaluation of the program. It aims to know how well the program serves the objectives. According to Kemp 1977: 98, there are several ways to evaluate the developed program, namely 1 test results, 2 reactions from students, 3 observations of students at work, 4 suggestions from colleagues. The steps of Kemp’s model are presented in Figure 2.1. Evaluation Evaluation Goals, Topics, and General Purposes Learner Character- istics Pre- Assessment Revise Teaching Learning Activities, Resources Support Services Subject Content Learning Objectives Figure 2.1. Kemp’s Instructional Model Kemp, 1977: 9 Kemp has given important information in constructing the instructional materials. However, the researcher will not stick to one kind of instructional materials model. The next model of instructional materials is Yalden’s model. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 13

b. Yalden’s Model Yalden, 1987