THEORETICAL REVIEW LITERATURE REVIEW
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was done and outlines how the data was collected. Results or findings which sometimes may be combined with discussion presents the findings of the research.
In this part, the researcher should write and present the facts only without interpretation by using graphic form, for instance, tables or graphs. Analyses
results which may be combined with interpretation presents the findings which refers to literature review. It also presents an interpretation and evaluation of the
results. Conclusion which may be combined with recommendations and suggestion is a brief statement of what was found. Recommendations is about
suggestion about suitable changes or solutions. References is regarding to all references used in your report or referred to for background information.
Sometimes, an educational research reports provides appendix. Appendix is any additional material whic
h will add to researcher’s report. The judgment of the education research can be done through looking at the
elements research reports. Judgments about education research involve judgments about research and about education since they involve some consideration both of
the methodological how well it was done and of the substance what it achieved. Therefore, examining the elements of research reports are necessary as
it provides information which can be used to see what elements are absent and still need to be improved. Hence, such this exploration is necessary to discover
how much the education has improved within a specific period of time in term of learning-teaching method. To assist researchers examining the research reports,
especially for those who obtained large data, a table consisting research attributes can be employed.
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The table should cover the attributes of research. Sozbilir 2016: 1651 has developed paper classification form PCF which consists of five sections: subject
of the paper, research design or methods, data collection tools, sample, and data analysis methods. The researcher within this research has adjusted the paper
classification form so that it becomes more adaptive. As the results, eleven main categories are formulated. Those are 1 origin, 2 investigated issue, 3 related
issue, 4 participant, 5 research problemgoal, 6 research design and method, 7 data gathering instrument, 8 data analysis instrument, 9 sampling
technique, 10 validation, and 11 results, 12 conclusion, and 13 additional information.
First, the classification of origin is based on the classification area of English discussed in the previous part which is proposed by Kachru 1985. There
are three areas namely Inner-Circle Countries ICC, Outer-Circle countries OCC and Expanding-Circle countries ECC in which the majority of countries
in Asia belong to this area. But, as the researcher wanted to focus more on Indonesia, she adjusted the classification into four, namely ICC, OCC, Asia and
Indonesia. Second, in terms of investigated issue, the researcher has used the theories
of learning-teaching method in determining the classification. They are approach, design and procedure. However, to get richer results, the researcher also put other
related issue as the third category. The classification will be based on what the researcher found in the studied research reports.
Fourth category is participant as the studied sample. It can be high school students, university students, English teachers, lecturers, etc. The classification of
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this category will also be based on what have been found within the studied research reports.
Fifth category is about the goal of the research. Considering the various goals that will be found within the studied research reports, therefore the
researcher will make generalization to classify them so that it will be easier to interpret. Firstly, she will read each research report and make a list on the goal.
Then, she will classify the similar goal under one classification as the generalization.
Sixth category is research design and method which can be broadly categorized into quantitative, qualitative and mixed the combination of both
quantitative and qualitative. Creswell 2012: 12 mention that experimental, correlation, and survey belong to quantitative designs. While, grounded theory,
ethnography, and narrative belong to qualitative designs. Mixed methods and action research designs belong to combine designs. Furthermore, Fraenkel and
Wallen 2009 also proposes that experimental, correlation and survey belong to quantitative. While content analysis, ethnography, and historical research belong
to qualitative. They also mention mixed method and action research. In the different term, Ary et al. 2010: vii make a clear distinction between the two. The
quantitative is composed of experimental and non-experimental. While the qualitative consists of case study, content analysis, ethnography, grounded theory,
historical, narrative, and phenomenological. The research design and method, therefore, are formulated based on the classification of those experts and what
have been found in the research reports. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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Seventh, the data gathering instrument consists of several tools which are commonly used to obtain data for both quantitative and qualitative research. Ary
et al. 2010: 527 have defined various data gathering instruments such as field note, observation, interview, written response questionnaire, performance
measures on and student’s information which can be in the form of portfolio or work samples, test, and many others. They also point out two instruments used in
educational research which aims at measuring the value, namely achievement test and aptitude test Ary et al., 2010: 201. Creswell 2012: 212 mention that
qualitative data can be collected through several instruments such as observation, interview, document and audiovisual materials. Considering the use of these
instruments, the researcher will put them in classification if the researcher finds at least two or more than twice.
Eighth, data analysis instrument is formulated based on three types of research, quantitative, qualitative and mixed. Data analysis instrument in
Sozbilir’s 2016: 1651 paper classification form also consists of quantitative and qualitative. The researcher involves mixed instrument since several researches in
English education also employ both quantitative and qualitative within the analysis.
Ninth, sampling technique is determined based on two types of sampling, probability and nonprobability. Ary et al. 2010 differentiate between the two
types of sampling. They mention that random sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling are the examples of probability sampling. While nonprobability
sampling involves convenience sampling, purposive sampling and quota sampling. Furthermore, Creswell 2012: 143 describe about sampling strategies
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in quantitative research. Probability sampling consists of random sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling. Meanwhile, nonprobability sampling is
composed of convenience sampling and snowball sampling. Therefore, the researcher has determined random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling,
purposive sampling, convenience sampling and quota sampling as the sampling techniques to be put in the research reports classification.
Tenth, validation is significant in both quantitative and qualitative research. Validity and reliability are commonly used for quantitative research as it
always depends on measurement. As stated by Ary et al. 2010: 225 both validity and reliability are essential in developing and evaluating instruments. In
qualitative research, the researchers can use credibility, transferability, trustworthiness and confirmability Ary et al., 2010: 498. The researcher within
this category has chosen validity, reliability, trustworthiness and credibility as the sub-categories of validation.
The last category is result. In determining the classification, the researcher will do the same procedure as in defining the classification of goal. She will make
a list of result from each research report and then the similar results will be put under one classification. By doing so, it will assist the researcher in interpreting
the results of large number of research reports. 2.
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching People talk about approaches, methods, techniques, procedures or models
into the practice of English teaching since in the middle age to 17
th
century. In that century, John Locke, Basedow and Comenius devised new method of teaching
based on the principles of imitation, repetition, and practice in both reading and PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
22
speaking form. It also was happened as the influence of Latin 500 years ago before the foundation of Roman Empire in which Romans studied Greek as their
second language. The process of second language acquisition was similar to be the acquisition of the first language such as repetition, imitation, and reproduction of
words, phrases or sentences. Mackey 1950 also believes that all teaching, whether good or bad, must include some sort of repetition, presentation, selection,
and gradation. Therefore, in the reform movement, about four decades ago Edward Anthony 1963 identified three levels of conceptualization and
organization, which he termed approach, method, and technique. An approach, according to Anthony was a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of
language, learning and teaching. Method was described as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach. An approach
is axiomatic and a method is procedural. Technique is the implementation of specific activities manifested in the classroom that were consistent with a method
and therefore were in harmony with an approach as well as cited in Richards Rodgers, 2014: 21.
Therefore, a couple of decades later, Richards and Rodgers 1982, 1986, and 2001 proposed a reform
ulation of the concept of “method”. Anthony’s approach, method, and technique were renamed, respectively, approach, design,
and procedure, with a super ordinate term to describe this three-step process, now called method. Kumaravadivelu 1994: 29
defines method as “a single set of theoretical principles derived from feeder disciplines and a single set of classroom
procedures di rected at classroom teachers”. While, Bell 2003: 326 defines
method with a lowercase m as “a grab bag of classroom practices” and Method PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
23
with an uppercase M as “a fixed set of classroom practices that serve as a prescription and ther
efore do not allow variation”. Prabhu 1990: 162, on the other hand, uses the term ‘method’ to refer “both to a set of activities to be carried
out in the classroom and to the theory, belief, or plausible concept that informs those activities”. Pennycook 1989: 610 argued that methods actually serve the
dominant power structures in society, leading to “a de-skilling of the role of teachers, and greater institutional control ov
er classroom practice”. Therefore, as a consequences of repeatedly articulated dissatisfaction with
the limitation of the concept method and the transmission model of teacher education, the L2 profession is faced with an imperative need to construct a
postmethod. The term postmethod was first coined by Pennycook in 1989 and was later studied by many other scholars like N.S. Prabhu, R.L. Allwright, H. H. Stern,
etc. The concept of postmethod condition was officially firstly introduced by Kumaravadivelu 1994. Kumaravadivelu 1994, 2001, 2003b who is information
currents of thought: One emphasizes the need to go beyond the limitations of the concept of method with a call to find an alternative way of designing effective
teaching strategies Clarke, 1994; Kumaravadivelu, 1994; Prabhu, 1990, and another emphasizes the need to go beyond the limitations of the transmission
model of teacher education with a call to find an alternative way of creating efficient teaching professionals Freeman Johnson, 1998; Johnson, 2000;
Woods, 1996. Kumaravadivelu 1994, pp. 43- 44 adds that “the postmethod
condition can potentially reshape the character and content of L2 teaching, teacher education, and classroom research. It can empower teachers with the knowledge,
skill, attitude, and autonomy necessary to devise for themselves a systematic, PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
24
coherent, and relevant alternative to method”. However, the source of inspiration for philosophizing postmethod is postmodernism. So before dealing with the
postmethod pedagogy, it would be helpful to take a glance at the concept of postmodernism Hashemi, 2011.
However, despite the widespread dissatisfaction with the prescriptive nature of language teaching methods and approaches, Islam 2017: 545 gives an
opinion in his research that the focus of ELT should not center on discussing methodological issues in a sporadic way, but on the ways how teachers can
implement those issues in classroom practices or how they can go beyond the prevailing methods.
In fact, postmethod pedagogy does not “imply the end of methods but rather an understanding of the limitations of the notion of method as it is narrowly defined
and a desire to transcend tho se limitations” Bell, 2007: 143 by empowering
educators towards developing a standardized system of language teaching. Efforts in developing a standard method of teaching were very much apparent during the
method era but they were sporadic and ultimately resulted in failures. But postmethod pedagogy has tried to string together these diverse, piecemeal efforts
in a harmonious way so that it can overcome the limitations of method.
From the different point of views which some experts talk about method and postmethod, it can be concluded that as educators, they should be exposed to
all methods so that they themselves can choose from the existing methods or even construct what principles they will use in their teaching. Moreover, method still
retains a place in postmethod and postmethod makes a newer type of method in the name of eclecticism and principled pragmatism. Electicism is related to
conceptual approach which holds multiple theories, various teaching styles or ideas to gain deep and clear understanding. While, principle pragmatism is related
to teacher’s plausibility which connotes the involvement of both teacher and students in the learning activity. In addition, following a method and a blend of
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methods give benefit for teacher especially for those who have recently started their teaching. They can get pack of suggestions including a set presciptions on
what teachers and learners should do in the classroom. Moreover, there are losts of limitations and challenges in postmethod pedagogy. Akbari 2008: 645 The
big problem is that, in postmethod pedagogy, teachers’ responsibilities are much broader and other than their academic duties, they are also assigned with “extra
roles of social reformer and cultural critic” thus taking “language teaching beyond the realms of possibility and practice”. Shohamy 2004: 101-106 gives opinion
that in many circumstances, most teachers are viewed as “servants of the system” who prepare students for a specific exam or test by just “implementing the testing
policies of central agencies with no power and authority to resist”. They are not only teaching but also assigning their academic or administrative duties. In this
matter, the teacher does not have enough time and energy to have kind of reflection regarding to their own teaching to overcome the language classroom
problems in an era when there is not any method anymore. In line with what Islam 2017: 545 says that though the postmethod pedagogy encourages teachers’
autonomy and freedom of will in language classrooms, the set up acts the opposite. And teachers’ lack of competence and confidence does not allow them
to be bold enough to exercise freedom. It is also certain that very few postmethod teachers have the time, resources, or the willingness to shoulder responsibilities.
Therefore, the term method in this research will follow Richards and Rodgers 2014, p. 22 who
say “method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and is practicall
y realized in procedure”. Hence, it can be said that method is like an umbrella which term for the
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specification and interrelation of theory and practice. An approach defines assumption, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and language
learning which the sources of the way things are done in the classroom and which provide the reasons for doing them. Design is the level of method analysis in
which included the objective of method, the types of learning tasks, teaching activities, learner
s’ role, teachers’ role and the role of instructional materials. Designs specify the relationship of those theories to classroom materials and
activities. Procedures are an ordered techniques and practices that are derived from one’s approach and design. A procedure is a sequence which can be
described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that.... It is smaller than a method, it is bigger than technique. The relationship between approach, design,
and procedure, the final step in implementing a method can be demonstrated in the Figure2.2.
Figure 2.2. Summary of elements and sub elements that constitute a method Richards Rodgers, 2014: 36
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The Figure 2.2 presents information that Approach, Design, and Procedure are related each other. Different theories about the nature of language and how
languages are learned the approach imply different ways of teaching language the method and different methods make use of different kinds of classroom
activities the techniques. The description of elements and sub elements that constitute method will be presented as follow.
a. Approach
In the nineteenth century, Grammar-translation method emerged and brought foreign-language learning into school curriculums. In this method, the
students were given explanations of individual points of grammar, and then they were given sentences which exemplified these points. These sentences had to be
translated from the target language L1 back to the students’ first language L1
and vice versa. At the end of nineteenth century, the direct method arrived as the product of a reform movement which was reacting to the restrictions of Grammar-
translation. Translation was abandoned in favor of the teacher and the students speaking together, relating the grammatical forms they were studying to objects
and pictures. In the 1920s and 1930s, the direct method morphed into the Audio- lingual method. The method attempted through a continuous process of such
positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners by using the stimulus-response-reinforcement model. Audiolingualism relied heavily on drills
to form habits. Therefore, the purpose was habit-formation through constant repetition of correct utterances. A variation on the method is the procedure most
often referred to as PPP Presentation-Practice-Production. The PPP procedure emerged in the middle of the 1960s onwards. Then, four methods, developed in
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the 1970s and 1980s, such as Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia, Total Physical Response TPR, and Silent Way. The emergence of
Communicative Language Teaching CLT was in the 1980s. The general principles of CLT are today widely accepted around the world. Therefore, some
approaches also emerged, such as Cooperative Language Learning, Content-based Teaching CBT, Task-based Teaching, and Participatory Approach. Those can be
regarded as a logical development of some core principles of Communicative Language Teaching.
1 Communicative Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching CLT, rooted in the multidiscipline, the initiation of communicative approach, came up at the beginning of the
nineteenth century, and formalized in the late 1960s, when language studies and foreign language teaching ideas made big changes in America, Britain and
Europe. Communicative Language Teaching CLT refers to a diverse set of principles that perfect a communicative view of language and language learning
and that can be used to support a wide variety of classroom procedures. Richards and Rodgers 2014: 87 have mentioned that CLT in language teaching starts form
a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching itself is to develop communicative competence. Furthermore, Widdowson 1978 said that
CLT focuses on the communicative acts underlying the ability to use language for different purposes. Briefly, it can be inferred that CLT focuses the language
teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures. Richards and Rodgers 2014 also proposed some principles in Communicative
Language Teaching. The principles are 1 Learners learn a language through PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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using it to communicate, 2 Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities, 3 Fluency is an important dimension of
communication, 4 Communication involves the integration of different language skills, and 5 Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and
error. Common activity types in CLT include Jig-saw activities, Task-completion activities,
Information-gathering activities,
Opinion-sharing activities,
Information-transfer activities, reasoning gap activities, and Role plays. One of description examples of CLL types is in Jig-saw activities. In this activities, the
class is divided into groups and each group has part of the information needed to complete an activity. The class must fit the pieces together to complete the whole.
2 Cooperative Language Learning
Cooperative learning has been proved to be an effective teaching strategy to both the teachers and learners. The focus in cooperative language learning
moves from teacher-centered to student-centered. The students will not perceive to be empty vessels awaiting the teachers’ knowledge like a traditional methods,
but in cooperative learning, it recognizes the importance of students’ existing
knowledge and puts that knowledge to work. Slavin 1995: 2 defines it: Cooperative learning refers to a variety of teaching methods in which students
work in small groups to help one another learn academic content. In cooperative classrooms, students are expected to help each other, to discuss
and argue with each other, to assess each other’s current knowledge and fill in gaps in each other’s understanding.
In other words, cooperative learning should boost interpersonal relationship. Moreover, it should assist learners to develop high appreciation of collaborating
with others. In the different term, Richards and Rodgers 2014: 246 point out that the word cooperative in Cooperative Learning emphasizes another important
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dimension of CLL: it seeks to develop classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning. Therefore, the idea of CLL is that it helps students to
benefit from collaboration with peers in their learning Jacob Hannah, 2004. In applying this approach, there are some principles which teachers should
acknowledge before implementing in their classes. The principles are proposed by some experts Kagan 1994; Slavin 1995; Johnson et al. They are positive
interdependence, individual accountability, interaction, equal participation, equal opportunity for success, and group processing. Al-Yaseen 2014: 93 summarizes
the aims of cooperative learning from some experts. The aims of Cooperative learning can be summarized as it help students to learn academically, learn listen
to each other and to solve problems together social-affective learning, and help students strengthen the confidence in their abilities and motivate them to apply
themselves more in the learning process personality development. Olsen and Kagan 1992: 88 gives several examples and also procedures of CLL activities
such as Three-step interview, Roundtable, Think-Pair-Share, Solve-Pair-Share, and Numbered heads.
3 Task-based Language Teaching
Task-Based Language Teaching TBLT is one of approaches in CLT. It refers to the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language
teaching. It also becomes the basic guidelines to design the classroom activities. Nunan 2004: 216
states, “task-based language teaching is an approach to language teaching organized around tasks rather than
language structures”. While, Branden 2006 defined it a
s “an approach to language education in which students are given functional tasks that invite them to focus primarily on meaning
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exchange and to use language for real-world, non- linguistic purposes” as cited in
Richards and Rodgers, 2014: 174. Willis 1996, p. 26 classifies tasks into six types, which are listing tasks,
sorting and ordering, comparing, problem-solving, sharing personal experience, and creative tasks. Whereas, according to Nunan 2004: 59, there are five
categories of task: cognitive, interpersonal, linguistic, affective and creative tasks”. Whereas, there are some tasks in each category. Cognitive tasks consist of
classifying, predicting, inducing, taking notes, concept mapping, inferencing, discriminating, and diagramming. Interpersonal tasks contain co-operating and
role playing. Linguistic tasks consist of conversational patterns, practicing, using context, summarizing, selective listening, and skimming. Affective tasks consist
of personalizing, self-evaluating, and reflecting. Whereas, creative task is only brainstorming. In designing the classroom activities, the learners follow three
phases in task-based learning. According to Willis 1996: 42 , “the framework of
task-based learning consists of three phases: pre-task, task cycle, and language focus”. Moreover, Willis 1996 proposes six task types such as Jigsaw tasks,
Information gap tasks, Problme-solving tasks, Decision-making tasks, and Opinion exchange tasks. Then, Astika 2004:8 provides the real example of this
approach. Two major tasks, for instance; the first task is taking tourists to the hotel for check in and taking tourists on a day tour. The subtasks for the first task
will be 1 meeting tourists at the airport, 2 giving information on the way to the hotel, and 3 helping tourists with registration. While, the subtasks for the second
task will be 1 meeting tourists at the hotel lobby, 2 beginning the tour, 3 describing the itinerary, 4 describing objects on the way to the destination, 5
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describing religious objects, 6 describing processes, 7 taking tourists to restaurants, and 8 describing sites.
4 Project-based Learning
Project is defined as complex tasks based on problems encountered by students, conducted in certain periods of time and culminated in realistic products
that might be in form of presentation, exhibition, publication, etc. Thomas, 2000. The project is supposed to be long-term, requires teamwork among
students, and results in a substantial final product Thompson Beak, 2007, as cited in Cruz Vik, 2007. It can be interpreted that not every assignment can be
considered as project. Project-based Learning PBL is one of teaching and learning method which engages students in active learning. Patton 2012: 13
gives brief explanation that Project-based learning refers to students designing, planning, and carrying out an extended project that produces a publicly-exhibited
output such as a product, publication, or presentation. PBL is different from traditional teaching method because it is an instructional method centered on the
learner Grant, 2002: 1. In traditional approach, the teacher becomes the source of knowledge and handles all the activities in classroom. While, the students will
listen to the teacher’s explanation, take a note, and do the exercises without having a chance to develop their creativity. Therefore, the purpose of Project-
based Learning helps students develop skills through completing authentic activities project-work for living in a knowledge-based and highly technological
society. Thus, the students have the opportunity to use the language in relatively natural context Haines, 1989, as cited in Fragoulis, 2009 and participate in
meaningful activities which require authentic language use. The project work in PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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PBL results an end product. The product can be presentation, storytelling, role play, artwork, drama, etc.
5 CALL
As the development and changes in education world, technological revolution realized that the implementation of the Internet, and the rise of
network-based teaching in the increasing use of computers for learning. Those as medium for communication have created possibility for students to foster and
develop their language proficiency in their target language. Developing effective language teaching materials based on second language acquisition principles is a
priority which needs to be addressed in all language teaching areas. Therefore, as autonomous and professional teachers or educators, they should be creative to use
their ideas concerning the methods and techniques or media used in teaching and learning process. They should be aware not only of the changing characteristics of
students, the changing environment or procedures but also the changing resources and the development of technology.
CALL which stands for Computer Assisted Language Learning can be used for teachers to make electronic teaching and learning material, for instance
by using PowerPoint, blog, email, or videoconferencing for presentation and practice. CALL approach emphasizes on student-centered materials which allow
learners to work on their own. In other words, CALL actually is essentially tools that helps teacher to facilitate the learning process. Kern Warschauer 2000
define CALL activities may be based in a network, such as the Internet, presenting several advantages: rapid global access at any time from any computer with
Internet access; integration of graphics, audio, and text; and ease and low cost of PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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publication as cited in Lloret, 2003, p. 87. It can be implied that as English educators, they can develop computer-based and web-based language learning for
teaching materials and exercises to make them various and interesting. Types of CALL activities are multiple-choice and truefalse quizzes, gap-filling
exercisecloze, matching, re-orderingsequencing, crossword puzzles, games, and online communication.
b. Design
It is necessary to develop a design for an instructional system in order for an approach to lead to a method. Design is the level of method analysis which
draws plan for achieving the learning-teaching goals. The design consist of learning-teaching instructional materials, learning-teaching media, and learning-
teaching assessment. The explanation can be seen in the following paragraphs. 1
Learning-Teaching Materials Every teacher needs supplies and resources in order to have a successful
classroom. Instructional materials can be reincarnated into materials which are a means of influencing the quality of classroom interaction and language use. In
other words, instructional materials are any resource or tools used in educational lessons, which teacher uses to teach their students and engage them in active
learning. According to Tomlinson 2011 as cited by Asadi 2015: 21 instructional materials are anything that is used to teach language learners.
Materials can be in the form of a textbook, a workbook, a cassette, a CD-ROM, a video, a newspaper a hand out. It is anything that presents or informs about the
language being learned. In the different term, Kibe 2011 defines that PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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instructional materials are integral components of teaching-learning situations; it is not just to supplement learning but to complement its process. It then shows
that, if there must be an effective teaching-learning activity, utilization of instructional materials will be necessary as cited in Wambui, 2013: 10.
Instructional materials are made up of objects such as printed, audio, visual that aid in the successful delivery of lesson Chuba 2000. In addition, Richards and
Rodgers 2014: 34 point out that instructional materials also define or imply the day-to-day learning objectives that collectively constitute the goals of the
syllabus. To this end, to conclude from working definition of some experts, instructional materials are said to be objects or things the teacher can use in the
classroom while teaching in order to ease off his teaching activities. However, instructional materials cannot address all the teaching-learning problems but it can
go a long way in solving them, simply because, they are additional apparatus that can influence the reality of teaching and learning activities.
According to Richards 2001: 251, instructional materials are a key component in most language programs. Whether the teacher uses a textbook,
institutionally prepared materials, or his or her own materials, instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much of the language input that learners
receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom. Dudley-Evans and St John 2000, p. 170 as cited by Asadi, M., et al. 2016 offer four main reasons
for using materials in the classroom: “as a source of language, as a learning support, for motivation and stimulation, and for reference.” While in the different
term, Richards and Rodgers 2014: 34-35 say that the role of instructional materials within a method or instructional system will reflect decision concerning
36
the primary goal of materials, the form of materials, the relation of materials to other sources of input, and the abilities of teachers.
2 Learning-Teaching Media
A medium plural media is a channel of communication, derived from the Latin word meaning “between”. The term refers to anything that carries
information between a source and a receiver. The other working definition of media proposed by Jacobs et al 2002: 240 who say that media can be seen as a
medium, broadly conceived, any person, material, or event that establishes conditions which enable the learner to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes.
While, a teaching-learning medium can be defined as an object the teacher uses, or which is given to the learners to use, to achieve specific teaching and learning
outcomes. It is not only apparatus or pictures, but include many other types of learning experience Jacobs et al., 2002: 240. Learning-teaching media can
therefore be defined as any medium a teacher uses to present a lesson effectively. There is so many different media that can be used, that the classification of media
by different experts will be looked into. The different experts Borich, 2002, Brown, Lewis, Harcleroad, 1998,
Kemp, 1998, Mehra, 1992, Chandra, 1989, McArtney, 1973 give classifications of media in different ways on the basis of those classifications a common
groupingtypes of media may be made as:
Print Media i.e. News Paper, Magazines, Digest, Journals, Bulletins, Handouts,
poster etc.
Graphic Media i.e. Overhead transparencies Charts, graphs Models, dioramas,
Maps, globes PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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Photographic Media i.e. Still Pictures, Slides, Filmstrips, Motion pictures, Multi-
images etc.
Audio Media
i.e. Audiotape,
Audiocassettes, Records,
Radio, Telecommunication etc.
TelevisionVideo i.e. broadcast television, Cable television, Videotape Video
cassettes, Videodiscs, Tele-text, and Videotext.
Computers i.e. Minicomputer, Microcomputer etc.
Simulations and Games i.e. Boards, Written, Human, interaction, Machine etc.
as cited in Naz Akbar, 2008, pp. 36-37. Since media can be a components for active learning and engage learners
powerfully in the learning process, therefore, media can be used to support some instructional activities. Romiszowski 1998 as cited by Taiwo 2009: 75-76 has
classified the roles of media into two. In the first media are used as instructional tool, which are used exclusively to enhance or enrich the teacher’s presentation.
Media used in this way are basically one-way transmitters and quite incapable of interpreting any messages that the learner may receive. Secondly, media are used
as instructional systems. They are used to promote individualization of instruction in both conventional and non-conventional setting. According to Morris 1962 as
cited by Taiwo the function of technological media is to support the teacher through enhancing his effectiveness in the classroom. Educational media are both
tools for teaching and avenues for learning, and their function is to serve these two processes by enhancing clarity in communication, diversity in method, and
forcefulness in appeal p. 76. Related to the roles of media as proposed by Romiszowski 1998, Taiwo 2009 explains teachers generally have preferable in
38
utilizing the role of media. They used media as instructional tools than as instructional systems since teachers’ role do not want to be replaced by the media.
3 Learning-Teaching Assessment
Teachers have an obligation to help the students in achieving the goal of the learning process. One way to help the students in achieving the goal is by
giving assessment. Nitho and Brookhart 2011: 3 state that assessment is also defined as a process for obtaining information that is used for making a particular
education decision. Brown 2004: 4 says, “Assessment is an ongoing process that
encompasses a much wider domain .” Whenever the student responds to a
question, offers a comment, or tries out a new word or structure, the teacher subconsciously makes an assessment of the student’s performance. Chatterji
2003,” Educational assessment deals with the measurement of characteristics integral to the educational process.” Assessment is the way people give an
estimate of a value by measuring. From the working definition of assessment proposed by some experts above, it can be concluded that assessment of student
achievement is an essential part of the teaching and learning process. It is important since it c
an help teachers to know and monitor the students’ progress in the learning process. Moreover, assessment can help teacher to find out students
current quality of performance, skills, knowledge, or attitudes through some procedures as a problem analysis and problem-solving. Therefore, it will gives
certain space for students to restore and improve their performance. There are two major types of assessment; based on the process and
procedure. In learning process, there are two types of assessment. Brown 2004: 5 says that assessment can be distinguished into two types, those are formal
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assessment and informal assessment . According to Brown 2004, “Informal
assessment can take a number of forms, starting with incidental, unplanned comments and responses, along with coaching and other impromptu feedback to
the student.” The example of this assessment is while the teacher gives compliment to the students aft
er answering the questions by saying “Nice job” While formal assessments are exercises or procedures specifically designed to tap
into a storehouse. The example of this kind of assessment is testing, students’ journal and so on. While, based on the procedure, there are two types, namely
formative assessment and summative assessment. The use depends on the aim of the assessment itself. If it is used to help the students in achieving the goal, it is
important to be done in the process of the learning, which is called formative assessment. The goal of formative assessment itself help teachers know where to
begin and or identify areas of remediation that must be addressed. Frequent assessments during the course help teachers and students to see the progress of
learning and help identify problematic areas where students need more help or time. In the other hand, if it is used to see the overall achievement it can be done
at the end of the process which is called summative assessment. Given at the completion of instruction, summative assessment aims to tell teachers how much
has been learned by the end of a unit, by mid-semester, or by the end of the term. In other words, summative assessment is about looking back and taking stock of
what has been accomplished. The goal of summative assessment is to evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some
standard or benchmark. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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In the different term, Chatterji 2003: 87-93 states that there are five types of assessment models. They are written assessment, behavior-based assessment,
product-based assessment, interview-based assessment, and portfolio-based assessment. 1 Written assessment is one kind of assessment instrument that
usually used by teachers in measuring the students ’ performance. The examples of
this type are essay, multiple choice, or fill-in the blank tests. 2 Behavior-based assessment requires respondents to demonstrate behaviors or processes that must
be directly observed. The examples of this type are structured observations or naturalistic observations. 3 Product-based assessment requires the respondents
to create or construct a product, which then serves as the basis for measurement. The examples of this type are journals, term papers, laboratory reports, science
projects, books, or artwork. 4 Interview-based assessments require the respondents to make spoken responses in an interview situation. The example of
this type is spoken responses in an interview situation, and 5 Portfolio-based assessments are purposeful collections of work or behavioral records that together
provide a comprehensive picture of proficiencies in a broad area. The example of this type is behavioral records.
4 Learner roles
Learners occupy a prominent role in approaches and methods. Richard and Rodgers 2014: 341 say that approaches and methods generally contain defined
roles for learners and reflect specific assumptions about the strategies and processes learners should make use of it in language learning. In addition,
learners’ contributions to language learning should not be constrained by the practices of a particular teaching approaches and methods. Therefore, language
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learning is not simply about teaching language. Educators have to expand their understanding of the role of learners in language learning; learner autonomy,
learning strategies, learning styles, and the opportunities for learner-focused learning provided by technology.
5 Teacher role
Richards and Rodgers 2014: 346 say that approaches and methods reflect particular assumptions and beliefs about how learners should learn which the
assumptions that may need to be reviewed based on the roles of autonomous learning, learning strategies, learning style preferences, and technology-mediated
learning. Larsen-Freeman and Anderson 2011: xi-xii also state that “a study of
methods is invaluable in teacher education since methods serve as a foil for reflection that can aid teachers in bringing to conscious awareness the thinking
that underlies their actions. Moreover, a knowledge of methods helps to expand a teacher’s repertoire of technique. In the different term, Clarke 2003 points out
that studying methods make clear on where the teachers stand since “the teachers can choose to teach differently from the way they were taught. They are able to
see why they are attracted to certain methods and repelled by others. Therefore, it can be concluded that having knowledge about approaches and methods is
important to help us as educators to prescribe how educators should teach, how to match our teaching to the method, how to adapt the method to local needs or
teaching context, and how to develop a personal approach or method. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
42
c. Procedure TechniqueStrategy
The last level of conceptualization and organization within a method is called procedure. Richards and Rodgers 2014: 35 define procedure as the actual
moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according a particular approach or method. Teaching strategies refer to
the structure, system, methods, techniques, procedures and processes that a teacher uses during instruction. While, learning activities refer to the teacher
guided instructional tasks or assignments for students. As teachers, they can help to enhance students’ skill, knowledge and attitude by using simple strategies that
can form part of their day to day teaching. The basic elements of an inquiry process of teaching strategies can be seen in the following Figure 2.3.
Figure. 2.3. Basic elements of an inquiry process SDERA,n.d: 291 The learning activities and strategies have been organized under the basic
elements of an inquiry process. The first element is ‘Turning in’ strategies. They provide the opportunity for students to explore their current knowledge, attitudes
and value towards some issues. While working independently or collaboratively, students can use suggested graphic organizers to record and share information.
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The example of this strategies are Before and after, Card clusters, Graffiti, KWL, One minute challenge, and Question partners. The second element is ‘Finding out’
strategies. They provide the opportunity for students to develop and demonstrate knowledge and understandings and interpersonal skills outcomes. They can
identify gaps in their existing knowledge and understanding, and work collaboratively to gather information through self-directed investigation. The
example are Circle talk, Head talk, Jigsaw, Placemat, Rip and review, Surveys, and Viewing. ‘Sorting out’ strategies are the third element. They provide the
opportunity for students to sort, analyze, prioritize, compare and contrast information to further develop and consolidate their knowledge, skills and
attitudes. Summarizing key information and clarifying relationships or associations between information and ideas will assist students to draw
conclusions and apply their understanding. The example are Mind maps and written responses. The fourth is
‘developing values’ strategies. The ‘developing values’ strategies will assist students to develop an awareness of their own
attitudes towards particular outcomes and ideals that are associated with a healthy, active lifestyle. The example is debate. The next element is ‘making decision’
strategies. They provide the opportunity for students to develop, practice and demonstrate the interpersonal skills and self-management skills outcomes. They
can examine self-talk and how it impacts on decision making; examine alternatives; record and analyze information; use different decision-making
models; select a course of action and reflect on the consequences of their actions. The example are Decision-making model and role-
play. ‘Speaking out’ strategies are the next element. ‘Speaking out’ strategies provide the opportunity for
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students to develop, practice and demonstrate interpersonal skills, self- management skills and knowledge and understanding outcomes. They can refine
the skills of active listening, assertive communication and negotiation. The example are Chook house speeches, Think-pair-share, Toss a die, and Vox pop
interviews. The last element is ‘reflecting’ strategies. They provide the opportunity for students to reflect individually on their learning in relation to
understandings, skills, attitudes and values. The example are Reflective questions, Thought shapes, 3-2-1 reflect, and Unfinished sentences as cited in SDERA,n.d.,
pp. 293-327. In addition, Richards and Rodgers 2014: 35 propose that there are three
dimensions to a method at the level of procedure: a the use of teaching activities drills, dialogue, information gap activities, etc to present new language and to
clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, or other aspects of the target language; b the ways in which particular teaching activities are used for
practicing language, and c the procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners concerning the form or content of their utterances or
sentences. 3.
Classification Area of English English as a global lingua franca is used as the main means of
communication. It serves as a “link” language among people of diverse linguistic
backgrounds around the world. The diversity of the English language has actually been reflected by the grouping of English speakers, which is divided by Kachru
1985: 29-30 into three circles: “inner circle”, “outer circle”, and “expanding
circle.” Kachru’s stated goal in the creation of his model is to illustrate the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
45
unprecedented diversity in the spread of English, and to challenge the ‘traditional notions of codification, standardization, models and methods’ as well as the native
speaker’s ‘prerogative to control its standardization’. The following quote that Kachru refers to the ESLEFL classification can be seen as follow.
The current sociolinguistic profile of English may be viewed in terms of three concentric circles . . . The Inner Circle refers to the traditional
cultural and linguistic bases of English. The Outer Circle represents the institutionalized non-native varieties ESL in the regions that have passed
through extended periods of colonization . . . The Expanding Circle includes the regions where the performance varieties of the language are
used essentially in EFL contexts.
Kachru, 1985: 366-367 From the quote above, it can be interpreted that there are three circles model of
English area. Countries in the Inner Circle include the USA and the UK. Countries in the Outer Circle include Bangladesh, Ghana and the Philippines.
Countries listed as being in the Expanding Circle include China, Egypt and Korea. a.
Inner-Circle Countries Inner-Circle Countries covers to countries where English is the primary or
national language ENL used by most of the population. Kirkpatrick 2007: 27 defines “ENL is spoken in countries where English is the primary language of the
great majority of the population .” Hence, the example of countries which used
English as the national language are Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. English within these countries is not only spoken
for specific purposes in some specific fields but also it takes part in almost all environments in these countries. They use it for daily conversation since it can be
said that the position of English is as their mother tongue. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
46
b. Outer-Circle Countries
In contrast, Outer-Circle Countries refers to countries which English is as the second language ESL. Kirkpatrick 2007: 27
says “ESL is spoken in countries where English is an important and usually official language, but not the
main language of the country .” These countries are typically ex-colonies of the
United Kingdom UK or the United States US. Nigeria, India, Malaysia and the Philippines are examples of countries in which English is said to be spoken and
used as a second language. Therefore, they have historical role related to the emergence of English in their countries. As a result, Kim 2011: 3
says “speakers in the outer circle tend to add a local element into English and creating its own
variety of English as a result of code-swi tching”. In general, the speakers are
adept at using a range of international English language when dealing with people from outside the group. But when dealing with speakers of their own group, they
tend to use their own English. c.
Expanding-Circle Countries The final classification for countries is Expanding
– Circle Countries where the position of English is as a foreign language EFL. Kirkpatrick 2007:
27 says “EFL English is not actually used or spoken very much in the normal
course of daily life. In these countries, English is typically learned at school, but students have little opportunity to use English outside the classroom and therefore
little motivation to learn English. ” Therefore, it can be said that the speakers in
expanding-circle countries use English only in specific fields classroom, office. They will not use English within their community family, country. China,
Indonesia, Japan and many countries in the Middle East are countries in which PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
47
English is said to operate as an EFL. Kim 2011: 4 adds “the speakers in an
expanding-circle world usually have no local model of English .” Therefore, their
English accents and patterns of error may reflect characteristics of their mother tongue Graddol, 2010: 11. As a consequence, the phenomenon of the formation
of a unique variety of Engli sh called “creole” also takes place in this third group.
The creole is usually formed from a pidgin, or a variety of language that was developed by a group of speakers who do not fully master the language.
d. Asia
As English has constantly been spreading around the world as a global language, it is no longer a language restricted to countries where it is spoken as
the first language mother tongue. Its spread is obviously seen in Asia. English dispersals in South-East Asia and the south pacific started in the late 18
th
century. The main countries involved were Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and the
Philippines Chang, 2011: 2. Kachru 1998: 6 had illustrated the position of Asia within the three circles ICC, OCC, and ECC in the following figure:
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Figure 2.4. Asia within the Three Circles populations in thousands From the Figure 2.4, Asia is a continent where most of the countries belong to
Expanding-Circle. The ‘inner circle’ is represented by Australia and New
Zealand, where English functions primarily as a first language. The ‘outer circle’ is represented by, for example, India, Singapore, and the Philippines, where
English is used as an institutionalized additional language; and the ‘expanding circle’ is represented by, for example, China, Thailand, Taiwan, and Korea, where
English is used primarily as a foreign language. All three circles of English present in Asia have certain shared characteristics.
e. Indonesia
Indonesia is a multilingual country with various local languages and language courses on various foreign languages. Among the foreign languages,
English is the prominent one. The teaching of English in Indonesia can be classified chronologically into three major phases. The pre-independence phase
covers the period before 1945, and the early independence phase includes the years 1945 to 1950. The third phase, the development period, covers the years
from 1950 onwards. Therefore, as a part of ECC which located in Asia, English in PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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Indonesia has also developed. The role of English in Indonesia is more or less the same with some countries in Asia which can be seen through its use in society in
general and business, politics, education and media in particular Lauder, 2008: 2. In his study, Lauder 2008:
9 mentions that “currently English is seen as needed for development. It is needed for instrumental reasons, as a tool which
provides access to international markers, scientific knowledge and expertise”. For this reason, English education in Indonesia seems to receive distinct attention.
4. Content Analysis CA
This part presented the definition of content analysis, the purpose of content analysis, types of content analysis and the procedure of content analysis.
The description and explanation can be seen as follow.
a. Definition of Content Analysis
Content denotes what is contained and content analysis is the analysis of what is contained in a message. A central idea in content analysis is that many
words of the text are classified into much fewer content categories. Words, phrases, sentences or other units of text which have similar meanings classified in
the same category. Content Analysis is described as the scientific study of content of texts which can be spoken, written or both of them. It is the study of the content
with reference to the meanings, contexts and intentions contained in messages. Krippendorff, 2004: 3-18 says that c
ontent analysis is “a systematic reading of a body of texts, images, and symbol
ic matter, not necessary from an author’s or user’s perspective”. The technique of performing this is by “making replicable
and valid inferences from texts or other meaningful matters to the context of their PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
50
use”. Meanwhile as defined by Ary et al. 2010: 457 “content or document analysis is a research method applied to written or visual materials for the purpose
of identifying specified characteristics of the material. The materials analyzed can be textbooks, newspapers, web pages, speeches, television programs,
advertisements, musical compositions, or any of a host of other types of documents”. He further mentions that in terms of purpose, content analysis in
educational research can be used to identify bias, prejudice or propaganda in textbooks, analyze
types of errors in students’ writings, describe prevailing practices, discover the level of difficulty of material in textbooks or other
publications and discover the relative importance of, or interest in topics Ary et al., 2010: 457
Content Analysis can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed. Generally, quantitative content analysis is a part of educational research which is analyzing
the internal content of a text both written and spoken. It is used to find out the occurrences or frequency of the actual and internal features of the content unit by
using objective interpretations. Therefore, the results will be in the forms of numbers or percentages. Creswell 2012: 15 describes quantitative technique as a
research approach which mathematical procedure, called statistics, is used in analyzing the data. It is also characterized through the use of research questions
that are measurable. Indeed, the most striking one is that it involves collecting numeric data from a large number of participants Creswell, 2012: 13. Hence, it
underlay the researcher in applying quantitative technique within this content analysis method. As emphasized by George 2009, cited in LaBelle, 2011: 144:
Quantitative content analysis is a statistical technique for obtaining descriptive data on content variables. Its value in this respect is that it offers the possibility of
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obtaining more precise, objective and reliable observations about the frequency with which given content characteristics occur either singly or in conjunction with
one another. In other words, the quantitative approach substitutes controlled observation and systematic counting for impressionistic ways of observing
frequency of occurrence.
On the other hand, qualitative content analysis generally is used to interpret the data results. It does not only include the manifest content but also the
contextual information and latent content. Mayring 2000: 2 says that qualitative is “an approach of empirical, methodological controlled analysis of texts within
their context of communication, following content analytic rules and step by step models,
without rash quantification”. In the different term, Patton 2002: 453 defines that “qualitative content analysis is defined as any qualitative data
reduction and sense-making effort that takes a volume of qualitative material and attempts to identify core consistencies and meanings
”. Therefore, from the two explanation from experts above, it can be interpreted that qualitative content
analysis accommodates the researchers to understand the theme, meaning or pattern of the text both in written or spoken form. It will not deal with numbers
computation and validity of the research instruments or data, but it will be dealing with much descriptions.
b. Purpose of Content Analysis
There are some purposes of conducting content analysis, one of which is to determine the presence of certain concepts within sets of texts in order that the
trend or occurrence of that concept becomes obvious Colorado State University, 2016. When the trends are known, it can be used for evaluation and therefore
planning for future studies. According to Neuendorf 2002, one of the goals of content analysis is to provide numerical-based summary of a chosen message set.
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Therefore, content analysis can be both quantitative and qualitative Ary, et al., 2010. George 2009 also says that content analysis is to counting for
impressionistic ways of observing frequency of occurrence. p. 144 [in LaBelle 2011: 99-100].
Saglam and Yuksel 2007 state that conte nt analysis “helps to summarize
the content of many research papers and provides reliable and valid generalizations in a particular research fie
ld” as cited in Solak, 2014: 170. However, Marying 2014: 19 says the purpose of content analysis is not only the
summarizing of verbal material description was important, but also the conclusion inference to be drawn from the material on the circumstances of its
origin and effects; in the material not only symbol frequencies but also symbol connections are measurable contingency analyses.
c. Types of Content Analysis
Currently, content analysis has three distinct approaches in interpreting meaning from the content of text data; conventional, directed, and summative.
Hsieh and Shannon 2005: 1277 explain the major different among the approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes, and threats to trustworthiness.
The first approaches is conventional content analysis which is generally used with a study design whose aim is to describe a phenomenon. Therefore, the coding
categories in this approach are derived directly from the text data. The second is directed content analysis which aims to validate or extend conceptually a
theoretical framework or theory. Hence, the analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as guidance for initial codes. The last is summative
content analysis which involves counting and comparisons, usually of keywords PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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or content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context. However, the analysis will not stop to count the frequency of specific words or content, rather,
interpret the result of manifest content. As stated by Hsieh and Shannon 2005: 1283
that “a summative approach to qualitative content analysis goes beyond mere word counts to include la
tent content analysis”. Latent content analysis refers to the process of interpretation of content Holsti, 1969. In this analysis,
the focus is on discovering underlying meanings of the words or the content Babbie, 1992; Catanzaro, 1988; Morse Field, 1995.
d. Procedure of Content Analysis
Different authors have a preferred number of and order for doing a content analysis. Wimmer and Dominick 1994 give ten procedures in doing content
analysis which are: 1 formulate the research questionhypothesis, 2 define population, 3 select sample, 4 define unit of analysis, 5 construct categories, 6
establish a quantification system, 7 train coders, 8 code content, 9 analyzing collected data, and 10 draw conclusions. In addition, there are four area to which
we need to give careful attention: selecting the unit analysis, constructing categories, drawing sample and testing validity.
In the different term, Krippendorff 2004 presents the steps or procedures in conducting content analysis. The steps can be seen in the Figure 2.5.
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Figure 2.5. A framework for Content Analysis Krippendorff , 2004: 30 The framework has illustrated the procedure of conducting content
analysis. The first thing to be considered is the text the data of the research to be analyzed. Once the researchers have acknowledged the text, they must formulate
the research question that is the purpose of analyzing the text. Through the research question, the instruments to collect the data can be determined. The next
step is describing the context. “In a content analysis, the context explains what the analyst does with the texts, it could be consi
dered the analyst’s best hypothesis for how the texts came to be, what they mean, what they can tell or do”
Krippendorff, 2004: 33. The next should be considered is analytical construct. It presents how the researchers have recognized the context. This step demands
them to explain how the text relate to the possible answer of the research question. Once the analysis is done, the researchers should make inference based on the
result of the analysis. “Any content analysis should be validatable in principle” Krippendorff, 2004: 39. It explains why the researchers in content analysis
should conduct validation within their research. It aims at strengthening the research findings.
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In the different term, Zhang and Wildemuth 2009, pp. 3-5 outlined a specific process for conducting content analysis and suggested an eight-step
process which was followed in this study: 1 prepare the data, 2 define the unit of analysis, 3 develop categories and a coding scheme, 4 test the coding scheme on
a sample of text, 5 code all the text, 6 assess the coding consistency, 7 draw conclusions from the coded data, and 8 report methods and findings.
Another procedure in doing content analysis research is proposed by Mayring 2014: 25. There are 8 steps as the basic procedure for such frequency
analyses, also regarded as a model for more complex analyses, is as follows: 1 formulation of issue or problem, 2 determination of the material sample, 3
establishment of a category system, 4 definition of the categories, possibly with examples, 5 determination of analysis units, 6 coding, i.e. working through the
material with the help of the category system in order to record the occurrence of categories, 7 computation, i.e. establishing and comparing frequencies, and 8
description and interpretation of the results. Treadwell 2014 say that a content analysis study typically has seven
parts: 1 developing a hypothesis or research question about communication content, 2 defining the content to be analyzed, 3 sampling the universe of
content, 4 select units for coding, 5 developing a coding scheme, 6 assigning each occurrences of a unit in the sample to a code in the coding scheme, 7
counting occurrences of the coded units and report their frequencies. From the different authors who have a preferred number of and order for
doing a content analysis study, it does not mean that they have different steps or procedures in doing content analysis study. Therefore, the researcher concluded
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that like any other research designs, content analysis should begin with research question which is considered to be the objective of the research. This research
question determines the researchers in selecting the instruments to collect and analyze the data. Sampling technique is necessary to be employed especially in
quantitative content analysis since it will be used to generalize from population. Hence, the researchers should clearly define the population, sample of the data,
and sampling technique they use. The following step is coding. It is considered as one of the characteristics that content analysis has. Before analyzing the data,
validation should be conducted. Then, it comes to the analysis. After finishing the analysis, the last step the researchers should do is to conclude the result of the
analysis.